PAGE 4
for growing some of the drugs that
they used medicinally(*5).
Some fifteen hundred different plants, pastes, potions, and
powders were catalogued soon after the conquest by a variety of
historians. The Mexica were sophisticated enough to wrap flower
petals around certain medicines to form a type of capsule, or
"pill" for easy consumption(*6). Many of these medicinally used
plants and herbs are still in use today and can be found in
sidewalk drugstores(*7). Photographs of the disease are often
posted along with the various jars, bags and other containers
displayed, depicting the ailment the drug is intended to cure or
provide some sort of relief.
____________________________________
5 Townsend, p. 170-171, relates the location of several tended
gardens that may have produced some of the medicinal items used
routinely by the Mexica. One was constructed by an engineer
called Pinotel, commissioned by Moctezuma I, to build a garden
near Huaxtepec. This garden was a horticultural experiment that
successfully transplanted trees and herbs from the coastal
regions to the Valley of Mexico. During the transplanting the
gardeners would let blood over the planting area from their ears
and fast for eight days. Gillmore, pp. 169-170 gives the
spelling as Pinotl and relates the story in detail and assigns
Pinotl as being a tribute collector from the Cuetlaxtlan region.
Gillmore further relates in her notes, p. 236, that certain
medicinal plants grown in this garden were cultivated after the
conquest for a hospital in Mexico City run by Gregorio Lopez.
The lord of Texcoco, Netzahualcoyotl, maintained an extensive
medicinal garden of trees and therapeutic plants at Tetzcotzingo.
Cortes wrote to King Charles V. of his observations of the
extensive gardens at Ixtapalapan, as noted in his second letter
to the King written in 1520. The great garden at Huaxtepec was
discussed in his third letter.
6 Gillmore, p. 189.
7 The sidewalk drugstore I am most familiar with is located just
outside the tourist zone in Nogalas Sonora and is just feet away
from a traditional pharmacy. The pharmacy is full of tourists
and what look like well off local residents, while the sidewalk
vendor always seems to have a good crowd of what appear to be
less economically stable local residents. The vendor had
approximately 100 different large clear plastic bags and jars
with various dried roots, powders, and herbs. I have also
observed similar sidewalk drugstores throughout Asia.
PAGE 5
The Mexica seemed not to encompass medicine into their long list
of social taboo subjects, and approached the science with an open
mind. The history of the Valley of Mexico teaches us that the
area was a melting pot of cultures. For centuries various tribes
from both North and South America settled and mingled in the
fertile valley of central Mexico.
The various medicine practitioners must have sought each other
out and traded recipes, stories and secrets. The discoveries
made by each tribe were discussed, tried and experimented with.
The good ones eventually would have been accepted into general
daily practice. The Mexica even had a crude dental industry in
practice. Common tooth decay among the Mexica was treated with
crude fillings and drugs were used for anesthetic. Feather
quills and cactus spines were used as simple instruments. Ground
seeds and roots of the nettle plant was used for the treatment of
festering gums(*8).
The general state of sanitary conditions in the streets, homes,
and great ceremonial centers, located near the great city of
Tenochtitlan, were exceptional and well regulated. Although I'm
not sure this sanitation was done in the name of any health
related regulation but rather a way to keep a large number of
people gainfully employed and give the various deities a clean
place to rest.
The city streets were well swept and kept clean(*9), drainage was
well mastered, and most human waste was collected and
disposed of or used in an agricultural manner(*10). The daily
garbage generated by the large population of the city(*11) was
treated in a like manner. Several reports by the conquering
Spanish make reference to the cleanliness of the great city of
Tenochtitlan and the surrounding area.
____________________
8 Liquidamber styraciflua, or sweet gum (copal) was applied to a
cheek in hot form for a common toothache. Vogel, pp. 378-9.
9 Meyer, p. 89, indicates that a crew of over a thousand people
were daily assigned to the task of cleaning the city streets of
the great Mexica city of Tenochtitlan.
10 Innes, p. 140, relates that canoes of human waste were taken
up various creeks and sold for the manufacture of salt and skin
curing. Urine was made into dye.
11 Buckets of human waste were routinely reported to have been
seen sold in the marketplace for use as fertilizer. Human waste
was barged with garbage out of the city. There must have been
landfills and dumping areas. I have not been able to ascertain
the locations of these Aztec "dumps", however, a likely spot may
have been on the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco near the
Chimalhuacan area.
PAGE 6
The common Mexica household maintained a good sense of personal
hygiene and bathed often, once a day was common(*12). Aztec
society before the arrival of the Spanish could be considered a
healthy one. Medicine seemed to be confined strictly to the
treatment of diseases, both physical and spiritual and not to
physical (*13).
As soon as 1553, by royal order, the Spanish began to establish a
system. This order called for the establishment
of a hospital program to tend to the medical needs of ill Indians
in the cities and countryside. By 1570 King Philip II had sent
his personal doctor, Francisco Hernandez,
to Mexico who spent seven years in the study of the native plants
of Mexico as well as a general study of Aztec medicine, and took
his finding back to Spain(*14).
In 1580 Mexico City could boast four hospitals for
Spaniards(*15), one hospital for the Indian population, and one
hospital for Negroes and Mestizos(*16). Various groups of nuns
and monasteries in Mexico began to open their doors and
concentrate their energy on the health of Mexico.
____________________
12 One of the hardest traditions the early Spanish priests tried
to break was the practice of adult men bathing with young girls
and older women bathing with young males.
13 During an earthquake it was common practice to publicly
sacrifice a hunchback, or other severely deformed, to stem the
destruction. For this reason hunchbacks and other afflicted with
physical deformities were well treated by society and kept close
at hand.
14 He intended to publish his work but much of his work was
destroyed. He did however collect information on over twelve
hundred different plants used in medicine.
15 Apparently the hospitals were well funded. According to
Lockhart, p. 216 & p. 284, one particular Mexico City hospital,
Nuevstra Senora de la Concepcion, was supported by a large ranch
it owned called Estancia of Mestepec in the western part of
Ixtlahuaca. As of 1585 the estancia could boast possession of
10,400 sheep, as well as black slaves to run the ranch.
16 Meyer, p. 245. Meyer further relates that these hospitals
were more like "rest homes" and provided only minimal treatments.
The good Bishop Zumarraga established a hospital in Mexico City
for the treatment of Venereal diseases with an asylum for the
insane soon following. Even with the coming of European medicine
the early Spanish colonists could only expect to live half as
long as we do today.
PAGE 7
In 1533 the Spanish crown was calling for anyone practicing
medicine to have been examined by a qualified university to
ascertain competence of the medical practitioner. In 1621 a
department of surgery and anatomy was initiated at the University
of Mexico. By 1791 there were barely two hundred and twenty one
surgeons and barbers(*17) in Mexico to service the native
population. Those practitioners were located mostly in the large
cities with little contact with the rural areas(*18). Considering
the large Indian population in the countryside, it is no wonder
that ancient cures and medicines persisted into daily practice
and can still be found to be in use in large sections of Mexico
today.
Medicine in Mexico has never seemed to be a great burning
political cause, or at least at other times than election
periods. Even during the Mexican revolutionary period, 1910-1940,
the population tended to place land reform and education above
the health of the common people. The medical system in Mexico
today still relies heavily upon ancient cures and the local
midwives and medicine men. Fortunately for the poor many of
these herbs, remedies and potions actually work.
This system of medicine provided a base for the formal medical
community to build upon. Recent awareness of the importance of
some of the old medicines has led to university level interest
into the study and documentation of some of the ancient herbal
remedies still in practice by the Indians of Mexico and other
middle and South American Indian tribes. local medicine people
are being contacted in rural areas of Mexico today and specimens
tested for cancer relieving properties, tuberculosis, and a host
of modern day ailments including AIDS research. One such program
is funded by agreements reached at the 1992 Earth Summit held in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil(*19).
____________________
17 Surgeons, or the common official medical practitioner, was
also a barber.
18 Meyer, p. 245.
19 Current team researchers are from the University of Arizona,
Purdue University, Louisiana State University, the Institute of
Biological Resources in Argentina, the National University of
Patagonia in Argentina, the Catholic University of Chile, the
National University of Mexico and the American Cyanamid Company.
This team is headed (as of this writing) by Barbara A. Timmermann professor of
pharmacology/toxicology and arid lands studies, the University of
Arizona. She has been studying and relating her finding of the
subject of desert plants for 30 years. An article outlining this
on-going research project with a photograph of Professor
Timmermann is featured in THE ARIZONA DAILY STAR, p. 1 B,
September 4, 1994. Professor Timmermann is known to lecture on
the subject.
Return to Table of Contents
PAGE 8
THE DIET OF THE MEXICA
The Mexica tended to eat quite well and adapted to their
surrounding environment with ease(*20). Although there was
limited year around fruit production in the Valley of Mexico, the
Mexica were able to obtain necessary vitamins supplements of A
and C from the various chilies they cultivated
and used as condiments(*21). Although we tend to think of the
Mexica as a strictly corn based society they cultivated another
grain called "Huautli", or amaranth in large quantities(*22).
Amaranth grain is high in protein and is today making a comeback
in dietary popularity after centuries of lost general appeal.
Cultivation of wild onions as well as tomatoes, called
"xictomatl", and green tomatoes called "tomatl"(*23), were
available as well as several squash varieties and mushrooms.
Cultivated root crops such as sweet potatoes, called
"camotli"(*24), and the "jicama", a turnip like root, were served
in a variety of meals. Meat was commercially raised and made
available to the general population from the production of
turkeys(*25), dogs(*26), mice, pigs(*27), wild sheep, and
____________________
20 In their early history, before the founding of Tenochtitlan,
the Mexica tribe was banished to a rocky and unwanted section of
land in the lake area that was infested with rattlesnakes. The
Mexica soon developed a taste for rattlesnake meat and thrived as
a tribe.
21 Chili pods were mostly roasted and then ground into a powder.
The Aztec would boil this powder with water to make a kind of
sauce similar to modern Tabasco sauce. Chili is an Aztec word
the Spanish called them "pimientas" or peppers.
22 Amaranth fields were primarily located south of the lake area
while corn was grown practically everywhere.
23 The Aztec taught the Spanish several ways to prepare tomatoes
including cooked or mixed with peppers. The Spanish soon carried
the seeds of this plant to Europe where it gained instant
popularity. At first no one would eat the fruit of this plant
and grew them strictly as decorations. Fear of the fruit was
hard to overcome and as late at 1820 Robert Johnson of Salem, New
Jersey publicly announced that he would eat a tomato on the steps
of the city courthouse. Shocked townsfolk watched in horror as
Mr. Johnson ate not one but a small basketful of tomatoes.
24 These were probably Dioscorea villosa, wild yams. Also known
as colic root or rheumatism root. Wild yams were used
medicinally as a diaphoretic and as a expectorant.
25 The cock turkey species that grew a blue wattle was thought to
be an emblem of the deity Tezcatlipoca, and the gobbling sound
made by this bird was a representation of his voice. Aztecs
would display their symbols as a sign of reverence.
PAGE 9
ducks(*28). People living outside the confines of the cities
could always rely on hunting for other wild meat sources such as
venison or rabbit. Insects as well as fish and a protein rich
algae(*29) could be harvested from the lake areas(*30) and
various streams. Varieties of beans were cultivated
commercially and was a staple source for needed protein to the diet of the Mexica.
Some fruit production of the guava, (Psidium guajava), family,
avocados, (Persea gratissima), and apples were combined with the
heavy cultivation of the Maguay plant to provide needed diet
supplements. An indigenous melon called "ayotli" was also
harvested. The broad leaves of the nopal cactus, "tunafruit"
were also consumed. Coconuts, (Cocos nucifera), were plentiful
in the coastal regions which were conquered and under the control
____________________________________
26 Nicholson's MEXICAN AND CENTRAL AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY, p. 37,
related that these bred dogs were called "Xoloitzcuintli" and is
not to be confused with the well known Chihuahua. This
Xoloitzcuintli was a much larger dog and is today believed to be
the first domesticated animal in all of the Americas. The breed
was almost extinct until recently a dog fancier, Norman Pelham
Wright, was able to obtain a few pure animals and as of the
writing of her book at least seventy had been registered with the
Mexican kennel club. Innes, p. 140, relates the Aztecs would
often fatten and castrate these dogs for the dinner table. Fat
from these dogs was used medicinally to clean wounds, a treatment
that the Spaniards adopted.
27 Pigs raised were only semi-domesticated often caught as wild
piglets. Cottie Burland, GODS AND FATE IN ANCIENT MEXICO, p.80,
relates stories of these piglets being treated very well, even
breast-feeding from the Aztec women.
28 It is likely that the poorer or common Mexica saw little of
domesticated meat sources and that the majority of the meat went
to the Nobel classes. With the exception of those living in the
rural areas and able to hunt, the common Mexica saw little meat
in the daily diet.
29 Innes, p. 140, relates that this algae was formed into cakes
and tasted much like a kind of cheese.
30 The lake area provided a wealth of ready food items for the
Mexica. Gillmore, p. 7, relates many creative ways in using the
animals and food sources. One interesting collection method
involved stretching out nets to catch low flying birds. Wild
marsh grasses were collected rich with the eggs of waterflies.
The eggs were sun dried and made into a paste.
PAGE 10
of the Mexica empire and probably made their way in the form of
tribute to Tenochtitlan.
The mainstay of the Mexica diet was the tortilla, made from corn.
The tradition continues today with little change. The kernels
are cooked with lime to remove the husk and then ground on a
stone slab with a grinding stone.
The dough is formed into little round balls and then patted out
by hand into thin round cakes or wrapped in a corn husk, the
tamale, to then fill and eat.
Ritual (*31) can not be ignored, there are just
too many references to it's widespread use. Reports of human
flesh for sale in the great marketplace and numerous reports in
the various codices associated with the Mexica, indicate the
serving of human flesh for consumption in conjunction with
festivals.
The flesh(*32) of the sacrificed victims was cooked with corn in
a broth, the stew was called "tlacatlaolli"(*33).
____________________
31 The word cannibalism is Spanish in origin referring to the
Carib Indians. Cannibalism was not limited to the New World and
has been practiced by many societies for many different reasons.
While in the New World it was primarily used to join with the
victim or as a food source. In areas such as Tibet and
Micronesia, the dead were honored by eating the corpse.
32 Cannibalism was well established with the ancient Chichimecs
who were known to kill their fellows for the only purpose of
eating. Diaz reports that in Mexica society the unwanted parts of the sacrificial
victims would be sold in the marketplace as protein. A common
cooking method was to stew human flesh with corn and serve the
dish as "tlacatlaolli", loosely meaning "human stew".
After a sacrifice the captor was often given the corpse of the
person he took in battle and provided a feast for his friends and
relatives but did not eat the flesh of the victim as he
considered the dead victim as "his beloved son". Others at the
party ate with no such feelings. The captor viewed the victim as
his mirrored self.
33 According to Boone's translation of the Codex Magliabechiano
in her work, p. 213, human flesh was compared to the taste of
pork. Boone further references that native Indians were fond of
pork meat brought to New Spain after the conquest for this
reason.
The actual glyph, contained in Nuttall's THE BOOK OF THE LIFE OF
THE ANCIENT MEXICANS (The Codex Magliabechiano), folio 73,
depicts more than a stew and in fact indicates whole body parts,
heads, arms, legs and other parts, in earthen jars being passed
among Indians. An interesting
essay titled Aztec Cannibalism: An
Ecological Necessity? by Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano can be viewed on-line.
PAGE 11
A favorite of the Mexica was the cacao
bean(*34) which was roasted and ground, sometimes with parched
corn, and added with water and beaten with a special stick to
produce a frothy state. Cacao is also a source of fat(*35). This
caffeine laden drink could then be flavored with honey or a wild
vanilla(*36) extract to be consumed for either pleasure or as
prescribed medicine.
Pulque(*37), a fermented alcoholic drink made from the maguey
plant, is known to contain a generous portion of the helpful
vitamin C and was also a favorite beverage, although drunkenness
was punishable by death it did not seen to dampen the use of the
drink and extensive private and public consumption was
commonplace.
Maize was roasted to produce a form of popcorn(*38) and shelled
peanuts were eaten by the population as well, and were probably
enjoyed as a sort of "fun food" as snacks then, as much as they
are consumed and in popular use today. Chewing gum was produced
by the bitumen plant and used to clean the of the Mexica(*39).
____________________
34 The cocoa bean was cultivated mostly in the coastal regions of
the Tabasco and Veracruz regions as well as the Pacific coastal
areas of Guatemala. The cacao bean was a staple of tribute sent
to Tenochtitlan as well as frequently used as a form of currency.
The modern name cocoa is from the Mexica "chocolatl". The
unsweetened drink made from these beans was called "cacaoquahitl"
and was made by simply boiling the dried beans in water. A
second and tastier drink was called "chocolatl" and was thickened
with vanilla, honey, and other spices.
..The following letter was sent to me through a discussion group I belong to
and further details the subject of chocolate....FOR MORE INFORMATION SEE THE FOOD SECTION
IN THE AZTEC LINK LIST....tom
...... Actually, the Mexica called the drink by many names, depending
on what recipe they were talking about, as chocolate could be (and
was) served with all sorts of flavorings, including flowers, honey,
ground chile, and many more ingredients. "Chocolatl" is not, though,
a Nahuatl word. The more widely used name for cacao-based drinks
among the Mexica was "cacauatl", which means "cacao water". The
origin for our word "chocolate" appears to be a combination of
Mayan and Nahuatl, as the Maya called their drink (which they
preferred to drink hot, as opposed to the Mexica who apparently
used it as a refreshment) "chocol ha", which literally means "hot
water" in Yucatec. Since the Spaniards probably first came across
the drink in the Maya area, it is probable that they picked the
name "chocol ha" there, later changing the Mayan word for water
("ha") for the Nahuatl one ("atl"), thus forming the word "chocol
atl" which was later changed to "chocolate" (there are plenty of
examples in which Nahuatl words ending in "tl" were changed to a
"te" ending by the Spaniards, who seem to have had a hard time
with the pronunciation of Nahuatl words, to wit: tomate (originally
"tomatl"), aguacate (originally, "ahuacatl"), cuate (originally
"coatl"), metate ("¿metatl?"), etc.). As for the name of the fruit
and its precious seeds ("cacao", from where the English word
"cocoa" is derived), it probably is of Mixe-Zoquean origin,
according to several linguists who have studied it. Its adoption
in Mayan languages (in which it is written phonetically as
ka-ka-w on vases and codices) is probably one of many things
inherited by the Pre-Classic Maya from the Olmec.
I would unhesitatingly direct anybody interested in this subject
to Sophie and Michael Coe's 'The True History of Chocolate"
(Thames & Hudson, 1996).
Jorge Perez de Lara
Mexico
...............END OF LETTER................
35 Yucatecs are known to have extracted a grease which was formed
into a type of butter.
36 Vanilla beans, V. planifolia, derive from a wild orchid that
grows wild in the lowlands of Eastern Mexico. The beans are
harvested from a long thin pod that takes a year to grow. Of
interest, the Mexican orchid is the only known orchid to be
pollinated naturally, by bees, other world wide varieties must be
pollinated by hand.
37 Pulque is actually a Spanish word as the Aztec made a form of
wine called "Octli", from this plant. Pulque may more resemble a
form of what we may recognize as a type of beer.
38 Popcorn was called "momochitl" and was worn as a garland as
well as other decorative uses.
39 Townsend, p. 172, related that snapping gum in public was
considered rude or offensive.
Return to Table of Contents
PAGE 12
MENTAL HEALTH
As with all areas of this web site I encourage anyone wishing to post a paper or individual research
into this section to do so. If you are a student just starting your research I further encourage you to read
the thoughts and opinions of others along with the pages presented here. As I am so often reminded, the
study of religion is subjective by nature. ....Tom
The Mexica people were neurotic. Tenochtitlan
was the center of the empire and the most neurotic. From birth
to the grave the typical citizen of the empire lived in a
constant state of fear and apprehension. Fear
that at any moment the earth would end violently or a wandering
deity might inflict grave illness. The smallest deviance from a
well defined daily regiment may unleash personal misfortune or an
even greater wrath from the gods upon society as a whole. The
universe was in complete chaos. Even the sun's ability to rise
each morning was in doubt. The Aztec believed they were governed
by fate and had no real control over their daily lives. The
concept of an afterlife was foreign and death was final(*40).
The Mexica world was full of omens, both good and bad. One had to
constantly be alert for signs and pay strict attention to daily
routine and ritual. A bird singing, a stone overturned, the
sound of the wind - every aspect of nature was speaking and the
Aztec had to listen, intently. There was one religion and the
earth was doomed. Melancholy, pessimism, and dread engulfed the
Aztec mocking life itself.
Depression must have been everywhere and so commonplace that it must have
been thought of as a normal condition. There was no happiness in
Mexica society. Childhood was a gauntlet of pain and self denial.
Adolescence was manipulated toward state behavior control with
sex used as a controlling weapon(*41). Adulthood became a zombie
like existence with obedience, self blood letting, and deity
worship at the core. Only if a person was lucky enough to reach
old age was there some relief. At that time they were allowed to
indulge themselves with alcohol until death finally overcame
them.
Society had developed into a ritualistic parody of free will. The
average man went about his daily routine as if following a
written script. Their religion was their purpose in life.
Success in life certainly was measured in acquired wealth,
however, the poorest man who kept his routine was well respected
in his community. After all, even wealth was pre-ordained by the
gods and luck or hard work had little or nothing to do with it.
____________________
40 A lucky few did, with proper behavior, go upon death to a land
governed by a particular deity.
41 Adolescent girls were encouraged to publicly mock boys that
had not yet captured a warrior in battle for sacrifice. Sex was
quite out of the question for one so weak in battle. It is
highly unlikely that the Aztec teenagers were any different
physically than our own society and this form of control must
have been the driving force in their lives during puberty.
PAGE 13
The Mexica citizen was surrounded by a well ordered and structured
society that publicly displayed constant reminders that the world
was in perpetual turmoil and may perish at any moment and for no
reason. The yearly calendar was one long festival and daily
reminder for the proper homage to the deities. As related by Diaz, Duran and Sahagun, public displays
of mass executions and torture were daily public events.
The daily routine was a constant regiment of ritual that included
bloodletting and sacrifice. A common misconception of the Mexica
is they had no regard for human life. Nothing could be farther
from the truth. The Mexica viewed human life and blood as the
most precious thing in nature. What better to offer the deities
than the most precious element they possessed? The collective
effect of years of this type of behavior and paranoia is
immeasurable by our standards today. We must guess at the
consequences on the mental health of the average individual.
Many scholastic history books depict the Mexica as Nobel warriors,
with a great and powerful expanding society and as empire
builders. It would be just as easy to depict them as a nation of
hopeless neurotics, letting blood from their genitals before
leaving their house in case a deity was offended, causing a giant
rock to fall out of the sky and kill them. They didn't just
think this was possible, they believed it! What is worse is
if we are to believe such historians as Sahagun and Duran, that they taught these
beliefs to their children.
Imagine a society where a man rubs dead spiders on his skin,
never takes a bath, and keeps his hair matted(*42) with blood.
This man even buys babies from your neighborhood to rip their
hearts out for the gods, and then eats the remaining parts.
Further imagine that you envy his job - because it's better than
yours as a collector of public excrement. There must have been
someone who had the job to keep the heads of people be-headed
stuck on poles and facing the proper direction. Of even sillier
note someone had to interview him for the position. "Tell me, do
you have any experience in impaling a blood dripping head on a
pole?" (I'll just bet someone said they were a quick learner).
The criminals of this society were odd. Thieves would actually carry around the severed left arm
of a woman who died in childbirth, and think they were invisible.
Worse yet, if one of them entered your house, you would pretend
not to see them as they made off with your property and assaulted
your wife and daughters. These thieves were invisible and if you
could actually see them, you might be accused of a type of heresy
and killed yourself.
Leaving your house for a simple errand would add to your
neurosis. Walking to the public market on any given day you
____________________
42 It is believed that the priests did not wash their hair as a
sort of penance or "giving themselves to dirt" in honor of their
gods.
PAGE 14
might witness public sacrifices, or have to dodge a rolling head
falling from the steps of a temple. Children being carried on
litters up to the mountains for sacrifice. Warriors and priests
wearing the rotting skins of their victims was another common
public sight. Upon reaching the market you might witness body
parts for sale. There was no place in Mexica society that did not
constantly assault the common man with pageantry, blood and
ritual.
How the human mind would develop and what psychiatric problems
existed, no one really knows, but we can suppose. We now
universally accept that we are a product of our environment and
that environment shapes us into what we become as adults. We now
know that abused children are greatly pre-disposed to abuse their
children in like ways. The Mexica were conditioned from birth to
follow orders and not question their lot in life. Stress was
ever present in their daily lives. We do know from records that
the Mexica suffered a host of stomach and intestinal ailments. It
would not be difficult to make a stress related argument for some
of the causes of these disorders.
Where the physical side of Aztec health might be considered
relatively good, the mental health of the population might be thought of as poor.
The average man was melancholy and depressed. A prisoner of fate
and destiny. Free will was nonexistent. The average woman
burdened with natural maternal drives that were in conflict with
masochistic societal pressure.
In some ways women fared worse than men. Men could always lose
themselves in combat and strictly male oriented pursuits. Women
were forced to keep house and their behavior quite regulated.
Women were treated as little more than slaves. Their sexual
lives were controlled as well as their home life.
What is most frightening is the willingness of the parents to
inflict this society on their children. The worst case of child
abuse you may be familiar with would pale in comparison to the
daily upbringing of children in Aztec society. The children were
raised in a world of real monsters, and their priests only too
willing to kill and eat them. The Mexica had to invent a deity to
come to their children's beds at night and help bring them
sleep(*43), the nightmares must have been horrible.
We do know that these children grew to adulthood and must have
brought a host of mental problems with them. When it came time
to start a family these disturbed adults raised their children
the only way they knew. They raised a new generation of
monsters. Generation after generation the Aztec added to their
religious rituals. And with each generation they evolved into
even more neurotic creatures. There is no model that we might
judge them by.
____________________
43 IXTILTON - "Little Black One"
PAGE 15
The biological or "disease" side of mental illness is more
difficult to speculate on. Certainly the population carried a
proportionate amount of illness to our own modern civilizations.
Where the correlation may tend to differ is the size of the gene
pool that carried these natural mental desires. Modern societies
tend to isolate and control an individual with anti-social
characteristics. In our society they do not tend to reproduce
themselves in a disproportionate manner, in fact society may even
act as a deterrence to their reproduction.
In Mexica society any rational individual probably would have been quickly
selected for sacrifice and tended not to reproduce. The effect
of generations of an anti-social population breeding and weeding
out what we may think of today as "normal" rational people,
certainly would contaminate the gene pool. This would result in
a higher national rate of biologically inherited mental diseases
and illnesses.
We would consider the Mexica individual as insane by our modern standards. Mexica society
was certainly considered inhuman by many. The Spanish soon after the conquest did
everything in their power to burn the Mexica books and destroy
any trace of the Mexica civilization. The Spanish saw nothing
worth preserving. It is only by sheer luck that a handful of
individuals, much after the conquest and in the nick of time,
recorded what little information survives(*44). Just what did the
Spanish see?
____________________
44 By the time Duran and Sahagun began talking to old men and
asking questions about the old Aztec civilization, these old men
had been well schooled in the concept of heresy. Just how
truthful these old men were in relating the true horror is not
known. An argument could be made that they only related enough
to satisfy the priests.
NOTE* I received the following differing view on Aztec Mental health
in letter form and
am posting it here to present a different view. The author of the letter wanted to stress that the
following is opinion and not from cited sources.
----- Original Message -----
From: Ambrose Blackthorne
Subject: Mental Health in the Aztec Empire
I was intrigued by your appraisal of the mental health of the average
Aztec citizen--but I am afraid I must disagree with it completely. I am not
a professor of Meso-American archaeology at all--rather, I am an amateur with
a deep interest in and admiration for all the cultures of Ancient Mexico and
Central America--however, I will attempt to explain what I feel to be the
level of mental health in Ténochtitlan or anywhere else in Anahuac.
One thing all students of "Mexicology" must remember is that the Aztecs,
Mayans, Zapotecs, etc. were an utterly different culture from anything in the
Old World, and thus we must leave behind our assumption that they think just
as Europeans did. Thus, the supposition that the average Aztec was
completely neurotic is (pardon me, I don't mean to sound rude) somewhat
faulty. A European or a modern-day American, sent back to Aztec Mexico,
would be terrified, fitting the profile you described. However, the average
Aztec did not view what he saw around him as any sort of living hell or
slaughterhouse. The Aztecs did not think of ripping out a prisoners heart
and putting his head on a stake as an evil act--rather, it was simply part of
the traditional religious cycle practiced for centuries before the founding
of Ténochtitlan.
When the Spaniards arrived, fresh from their own Inquisition, they were
terrified to see the Aztec people flagrantly defying their moral order by
practicing human sacrifice--this was a terror the Mexica did not understand
because it was a cultural institution to which they had grown accustomed.
Many people have tried to point out human sacrifice as some sort of terrorist
custom designed to cow the Aztec people, but I am again forced to disagree
because these sorts of accusations do not come from an objective viewpoint.
As for your comment regarding Ixlilton, the very same thing might be said
regarding children today. Does this little god not sound like Mr. Sandman?
Would it be apt to say that American parents, living in one of the most
violence-obsessed and violent nations on earth, tell their children about Mr.
Sandman to prevent them from having nightmares about the evening news? It
seems to me that when modern day America is compared to the Aztec Empire, we
are the more violent of the two.
--Ambrose Blackthorne
--------------LETTER
I received the follow letter and am posting it here
From: J.Y.
Subject: point of interest
.....It may be a point of interest to you that this complies with Darwin's
theory of evolution, which he in his later years abandoned. If you look
into why he abandoned his theory you would see that it was because through
mathematical genetic proof, and observation, it was found (and is still
accepted today) that we have dominant and recessive traits. If a family had
10 kids, and one of those kids showed a strong trait, all the kids carried
the gene.. it was just dominant in one, so it has been found that selective
breeding does not alter the gene pool to any permanent degree. Especially in
a mainly uncontrolled situation like that, the people overall would not change.
The modern theory of evolution relies on the modification of genes through
mutation from the sun and other radiation sources. This method will not
just 'hide' a characteristic but it creates or destroys them.
-----------end of letter
Return to Table of Contents
PAGE 16
MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS(*45)
ATLAN TLACHIXQUI - meaning "A Looker into Water". A seer who
would diagnose a child's illness by looking at the reflection of
a child's face in a pan of water.
MATLAPOUHQUI - meaning "One Who Has Counted Things". A sorcerer.
This man would determine the outcome of an illness by measuring a
patient's forearm with the palm of his hand and his fingers. See
also ATLAN TLACHIXQUI.
MECATLAPOUHQUE - meaning "Fortune Teller by the Strings".
According to Sahagun, these tellers would use bundles of strings
which were thrown. If the strings remained tangled it was a sign
of grave sickness. If one of the strings came untwined, a cure
was possible. These tellers would also rub their hands with
tobacco and measure the left arm of the patient with the palm of
the healers right hand. This practice was called the
"measurement of the arm"(*46).
NAHUALLI - meaning "Witch or Sorcerer, Magician, Necromancer".
This healer was believed to have the power to transform
him/herself into an animal. Possibly a person who attempted to
invoke magic to cure a patient. Name may have meant "The Wise
One". When all else failed, the Mexica medical practitioners
often resorted to magical cures.
PAHINI - meaning "To Drink Medicine". May have referred to the
individual who would drink Medicine, or what we may call drugs,
for the purpose of ascertaining the illness of the afflicted
patient. The Mexica were not as developed medically in the field
of finding the cause of the illness in their patient as they were
in effecting a cure for the illness.
TEMIXIHUITIANI - meaning "To Give Birth", or possibly " To Cause
Someone to Give Birth". This person may have been brought in to
induce labor. Possibly this practitioner was considered to be
one step higher than a common midwife. See also TEPALEHUIANI
listing.
The birthing process was an important aspect both physically and
socially in the Mexica community. It is not unreasonable to
assume that various medical levels were devoted to this area of
____________________
45 The Mexica deity Quetzalcoatl was known as the Lord of Healing
and Magical Herbs, and considered one of the givers of knowledge
of medicine to the Mexica. The deity Quilazli- "She Who Makes
Legumes Grow" was also known as the Patron of Midwives and
worshiped by medical practitioners as well.
46 Soustelle, p. 195.
PAGE 17
medicine. Women who died during childbirth were given the
highest honor and thought to go to the same place as warriors who
died in battle, the place of the sun, there was no higher plane.
TEPALEHUIANI - meaning "To Help Someone", or "One Who
Customarily Helps Someone". The practitioners known as
Tepalehuiani, may have been a midwife.
TETLACHIHUIANI - meaning "To Do Something For Someone". A
sorcerer, according to Sahagun, who "Bewitches" people. This
bewitchment may have had constructive purposes in the process of
medicinal curing. The process of magic and medicine were
intertwined in the thought as well as the daily practice of
Mexica herbal medicine(*47).
TETONALTIH - meaning "A Healer of the Soul?". Person used to
retrieve the lost soul of a sick patient. The Mexica believed
the soul to be a treatable part of the body(*48).
TEXOXQUI - meaning "A Wizard or Witch". A malevolent sorcerer
who would bewitch.
TEYOLLOHCUANI - meaning "To Eat Someone at the Heart". A blood
eating sorcerer or sorceress who brings about sickness. Possibly
an evil sorcerer.
TICITL - meaning "Doctor or caster of lots". Physician or
counselor, could be used by a midwife should the need arise and
complications set in during a pregnancy. Midwives were quite
capable practitioners in their field and the calling in of a
Ticitl(*49) was probably not a common occurrence. See also
TEMIXIHUITIANI and TEPALEHUIANI listings.
TLACHIXQUI - meaning "One Who Has Looked". A prophet, a seer.
See also ATLAN TLACHIXQUI listing.
TLAMACAZQUI - meaning "One Who Will Give Something". A Priest?
TLAOLXINIANI - meaning "One Who Causes Shelled Maize to
Collapse". A healer who would help a sick person by tossing
maize kernels into the air and then diagnosing the patient by
reading the position of the fallen kernels. The process of
throwing maize kernels was a widely practiced diagnostic tool.
____________________
47 Soustelle, p. 192, mentions "tetlacuicuilique", they who draw
out stones from the body, "tetlanocuilanque", those who draw out
worms from the teeth, and "teixocuilanque", those who draw out
worms from the eyes. These three are described as being healing
women and possibly related.
48 The reference to soul is somewhat ambiguous as the Mexica had
no concept of eternity or reincarnation as it applies to man.
They did, however, attribute this ability to their deities.
49 Wolfgang Von Hagen, p. 109, theorizes that the name "ticitl"
may have derived from "tetla-acuicilique", meaning "he-who-
recovers-the-stone". The reference to the stone is as the
medicine man before trying a herbal approach often looked for
stones to withdraw from the body.
Return to Table of Contents
PAGE 18
MEDICINES USED BY THE MEXICA
This section draws heavily from
Alcaron's book which was written in 1629. Certainly some medical
modification had developed from the time of the conquest to the
time of the writing of his book, however, where there is smoke
there is fire and this section can certainly serve as a base to
anyone interested in further researching this interesting and
little researched area of Aztec Pharmacology(*50).
+---------------------------------------------------------------+
|BASES - TO WHICH OTHER DRUGS WERE ADDED ATOLLI/COCOA |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
|NAME | TYPE | MAJOR USE |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|ATL INAN | HERB | FEVER/INTESTINAL |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|AZIN | INSECTS | INFECTIONS |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|CAHALALAHTLI | ROOT | TUMORS/SWELLING |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|COANENEPILLI | ROOT | FEVER/CHEST PAIN |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|MAGUEY | PLANT | INTOXICANT |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|NANACATL | HERB | NARCOTIC/INTOXICANT |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|OLOLIUHQUI | VINE | FEVERS/INTESTINAL |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|PICIYETL | HERB | GENERAL PURPOSE DRUG |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|TLACOPAHTLI | ROOT | INTERNAL INJURIES |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|TLAPATL | PLANT | PSYCHOTROPIC DRUG |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|TZOPILOTL | TREE | DISSOLVE TUMORS |
|--------------+--------------+---------------------------------|
|XIUHCOHCOLIN | HERB | CURE ULCERS |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| |
| MAJOR DRUGS USED BY THE AZTEC |
| |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+
____________________
50 Alcaron's book is well written and contains a good starting
point for a student interest in this area.
PAGE 19
AGUAMIEL - meaning "The Sap of the Maguey". Fermented, this sap
produced Pulque. See also OCTLI and MAGUEY listings.
AMARANTH - The grain when ground and made into the image of a
mountain or hill was thought to have healing powers for those
suffering from tumors, paralysis,
lameness and other body imperfections(*51).
AMATE - Ficus Glabrata. The Wild Fig. This tree does not
produce edible fruit. Known as tree killers as the seeds of this
tree lodge in other trees and grow to crush the host. Paper was
made from this tree and some of the paper was cut into shapes of
humans and animals for witchcraft purposes. Often these images
were buried in front of the house of someone you wanted to injure
or make ill.
AMPOULE - Sapindus saponorious. Roots of this plant were used to
poison fish(*52).
ATL INAN - meaning "It's Mother is Water". Herb used as an
additive for an enema to treat stomach
pains, or mixed with water and twelve maize kernels for fevers.
Leaves of the plant were chewed in the morning to relieve
fever and help with ulcers. Had many
other uses such as stopping diarrhea and
dysentery. A natural astringent.
ATOLLI - A thick sap made from water and corn meal with added
fruit, honey or milk for taste to form a base to which medicine
was added for the patient(*53). The Aztec herbal medicines were
not very pleasant to the taste. See also COCOA listing.
ATOCHIETL - A plant. Colds and
respiratory problems could be helped by inhaling the
odor of this plant.
____________________
51 According to Duran, p. 452-453 these dough images were greatly
revered during the thirteenth month of the Aztec calendar and
were made during the Feast of Hueypachtli during the "Festival of
the Hills", in which all mountains and hills were honored. It is
probable that during such times the dough images held more power
than at other times of the year.
52 A relative, Sapindus drummondii, also contains this
characteristic and further is used in soap making. This plant is
found throughout Mexico and grows to over thirty feet with yellow
berry-like fruit.
53 Atoli seems to be the favorite mixing base for Mexica
medicines with cacao a close second. Considering the source for
most of the base drugs in the Mexica medical system it is not
surprising that additives were widely used.
PAGE 20
AYONELHUATL - An herb. Mixed with eagle excrement this mixture
was inserted into the womb of a woman entering
childbirth.
AZIN - Potion made from insects which were cultivated and
harvested naturally from trees(*54). The carefully selected and
harvested insects were boiled in water and during the boiling
process, a waxy like film would come to the surface of the water
which was then collected. The film which came to the top of the
boiled water was harvested and formed or fashioned into little
round balls and used to cure rashes of the skin or
treat ulcers and infections.
According to Sahagun, this substance was also used to cure feet
that fell asleep. Tumors and pain were
also treated with this medicine. Mixed with the drug Piciyetl,
it was used to treat hernias. Said to be a last
resort for a serious case of diarrhea(*55).
BALCHE - Lonchocarups longistylus. Known as the "Lance Pod" and
as "Balch". A Mayan area tree bark which produced a fermented
intoxication beverage. Tree produced flat seed post about three
inches long and white or pink small blossoms. The extensive
Mexica trading network probably was aware of this substance and
returned to Tenochtitlan with knowledge of this tree and the bark
itself.
CACAO - From the tropical tree, Theobroma cacao(*56).Used as a
base for the addition of other medicines. Primary use of this
____________________
54 Branches of the Jatropha currca, and Spondias trees were the
favorite roosting places of these bugs. Alcaron, p. 248. The DE
LA CRUZ-BADIANO AZTEC HERBAL OF 1552 with an English translation
by William Gates, Pub. #23, The Maya Society, Baltimore, 1939,
gives uses for several plants and trees in Mexica society.
55 Intestinal trouble seems to be a continuing ailment among the
Mexica as most of their known medicines tended to deal with
various related stomach problems. Culbert's book, p. 114,
relates that the Maya suffered similar intestinal problems of
either bacterial or parasitic origin, and considered these
problems "endemic in the Maya population".
56 Theobroma means "food of the gods". There are two other
species which cocoa is produced T. angustifolium and T. bicolor,
however there quality is not as good. When in commercial
production the trees are kept to an approximate height of twenty
five feet. The beans are collected from a pod with a thick rind.
The pod houses five rows of almond shaped seeds in a light
colored sweet pulp. After collection the seeds are removed from
the pods and fermented for three to ten days to expel their
bitterness and then dried. A mature tree produces approximately
thirty bean pods annually, which produces about two pounds of
beans, including the hulls.
PAGE 21
popular bean was for taste, or hiding the taste of the various
other medicines used. As cacao contains caffeine, the stimulant
properties of the drug aspect of the bean can not be ignored and
were probably used additionally as a sort of stimulant(*57).
One of the largest cacao producing regions in Mesoamerica was
located southeast of Xicalango in the Chontal Maya province of
Acalan, meaning "place of canoes". As cacao ripens in stages
throughout the year, it was a heavy labor oriented agricultural
product to grow and harvest. See also ATOLLI listing as it too
was used as a base and for flavoring.
CAHALALAHTLI - A tree of which the root was mixed with the drug
Piciyetl for head swelling. Cahalalahtli was also considered as
part of the treatment for the cure of various tumors
that inflicted the Mexica people.
CHALALATLI - A root when mixed with tobacco was thought to be a
cure for a swelling; head or
headaches(*58). This root was possibly red.
CHICHIQUAUITL - Garrya laurifolia. Used medicinally for the
treatment of dysentery.
CICIMATIC - Canavalia villosa. The root of this plant was
chopped and administered for the cure of severe eye
ailments. For common irritation of the eye, medicine was made
from several plants including Bocconia arborea(*59).
COANENEPILLI - meaning "Snake-tongue". (Herb) Bladderwort root
is powdered and thickened with water and drunk for
chest pain;. Mixed with other drugs it was used for
fever as well. According to Sahagun, the drug Coanenepilli was
also used as a cure for an afflicted individual who found blood
in the urine and other urinary track
ailments. Often mixed with ground corn and agave leaves and
given as an emetic for dysentery. See also
HUIHUITZMALLOTIC listing.
This all purpose drug was also used for stimulating the appetite,
coagulation of the blood to stop bleeding, as a
general pain reliever, and as a cure for various
snakebites.
____________________
57 The Spanish Conquistadors made many references to the
refreshing properties of this drink.
58 Soutelle, p. 196.
59 Vogel p. 204.
PAGE 22
COLOPAHTLI - meaning "Scorpion Medicine". Drug made from a tree.
Medical use in the treatment of hemorrhoids(*60) and
for scorpion stings. Also found useful in the
control of stomach pain and excess
flatulence(*61).
COPALLI (COPAL) - Many varieties are known to have existed and to
have been commercially made and distributed, most of the Burserra
genus. Aromatic tree with flowers. A resin was collected from
the trunk of the copalli tree and processed into copal. The
drug/smoke was primarily used as incense. Copal is still in
production today.
The Mexica medical practitioner used copalli in medicine for
relief of general toothache pain and as a
drinking medicine. Also used as an enema for the cure of
diarrhea. Also used as a plaster after dissolving
in water for application of excess swelling and
general inflammations. Also useful for the treatment of
headaches. Copal was used by most all civilizations
in Mesoamerica and was extensively cultivated and used by the
Maya.
HUAUHTLI (Amaranth) - Amaranthus leucocarpus(*62). Sahagun
describes this plant as producing a small dry fruity grain. This
grain was ground into dough and made into the god images used in
festivals, "seed-dough images". In medicine it was used to put
on the body to reduce swellings. Also used as a cure for eye
disease. Root or leaves of this plant were applied to the chest
to relieve chest pain. The Mexica place some value
toward this drug as a cure for advanced ulcers.
HUEI NACAZTLI - meaning "Big Ear". Also referred to as the
Eardrop Tree and Guanacaste. Made from a large tree,
Enterolobium cyclocarpum, approximately 12-30 meters tall and
member of the Mimosa family. The tree produced a dark brown
____________________
60 Hemorrhoids and there cure are discussed extensively by
Sahagun and the de la Cruz Herbal. Some cures involved such
prescriptions as, first catch a weasel and eat it.
61 Flatulence seems to have been a problem of concern among the
Mexica as a variety of drugs were prescribed for it's treatment,
see also MAGUEY listing.
62 Amaranth is a wild grain known the world over for colorful
foliage, usually red. To the ancient Greeks it was a symbol of
immortality used in wreath making and as decorations for their
tombs. In addition to garden varieties for consumption, the weed
family of amaranth includes "tumbleweeds". Amaranthus
retroflexua, or cockscomb, is known to be used for the treatment
of diarrhea and menorrhagia, Coon, p. 58.
PAGE 23
fruit from which the seeds are taken and used(*63). The fruit
and bark of this tree are high in tannin levels which was
probably it's main medicinal ingredient.
Mixed with other herbs, portions of this medicinal tree were used
to cure fevers, or added to chocolate and tobacco as medicine.
Huei Nacaztli was also used as a cure for excess body
fatigue(*64) and worn around the neck as an amulet for the
protection of people traveling about the land. Probably worn
extensively by members of the merchant class.
HUIHUITZMALLOTIC. An herb. Should the drug COANENEPILLI fail to
work, this herb was mixed with honey and inserted into the penis
to cure urinary problems(*65).
IXYAYAUL - (mountain balm). Prescribed for urinary complaints and
mixed with the vine "Oquichpatli".
IYAUHTLI - meaning "An Offered-up Thing". Herb, Tagetes lucida,
referred to as "the sweet smelling
marigold(*66)". Used as incense. Medicinally mixed with
piciyetl for the relief of chest pain. Was also
considered useful in the treatment of gout and
fevers. Hiccups could also be treated. This
herb further held a mild sedating property. May have been
referred to by the Mexica as Yauhtli.
IYETL - meaning "tobacco". Used as incense and as a medicine.
Often other drugs were mixed with tobacco and smoked to ingest
the medicinal properties of the various drugs. Also referred to
as Yetl. Mexica priests were known to carry Iyetl with them in
little bags. Tobacco was also mixed with salt and pepper as an
abdominal purge and for diarrhea. Juice from
____________________
63 The Chiapas Indians are known to have roasted the seeds of
this tree and during times of famine used them to replace grain
crops in their diet. Pesman, p. 86.
64 According to Fackelman, quoting from Robert Bye of the
Botanical Garden in Mexico City, Aztec healers would mix a potion
of digestive stones found in bird gizzards, animal blood, and
boiled selected herbs. This mixture was said to relieve fatigue
and to restore energy. The mixture was also thought to relieve
tired feet. A popular application of this mixture was to take a
bath in the healing properties.
65 Wolfgang von Hagen, p. 112.
66 The marigold is of the genus Tagetes with two common species
African or (Aztec), and French. Both are native to Mexico with
the latter having smaller heads. In Europe "pot marigolds" were
of the genus Calendula where they also were used medicinally, as
a food additive and for coloring, Bridgwater, p. 297.
PAGE 24
tobacco would be used as an antidote and for arrow poison
(*67). Tobacco further holds a small antiseptic property. See
also PICIYETL listing.
IZTACPATLI- Psoralea pentaphylla. Used medicinally for the
control of fever.
IXTACOANENEPILLI - Used medicinally for treatment as a
diuretic.
MACACOATL - The steepings of a snake used to increase
sexual appetite and physical stamina.
Clendinnen (*68) makes reference to this substance being used by
prostitutes in the practice of their trade to drug their clients
and take advantage of them. Legends surrounding this drug have a
hapless man ingesting this drug and quite literally draining
himself, drying up and dying as a result of excess sexual
activity.
MACPALXOCHIQUAUHITL - meaning "Hand Flower". Chiranthodendron
pentadactylon. Bark of this tree mixed with the Datura plant and
used for inflammations and skin eruptions. Flowers from the
blooming season were either worn as amulets or preserved as
medicine to treat hemorrhoids, epilepsy, and swelling of the
genitalia(*69).
MAGUEY - A word of Taino origin, and a term generally associated
with Agaves. Most common among the many varieties was Agave
americana, (Amaryllidaceae), Nahuatl equivalent is metl. Also
called "century plant", "American aloe", and "American agave".
More than 200 species are recorded. Plant from which pulque is
made. Medically used as an intoxicant and as a base for
medicines.
Derivations of this plant were thought to prevent or assist in
the elimination of various forms of lice
infestation. Other use of this plant were to ease the process of
childbirth, induces lactation, stop
itching, help with the healing of
bruises, and assist with the cure of
____________________
67 Vogel p. 381.
68 Aztecs, p. 167. She further relates how prostitutes would
trick men into drinking too much of this drug.
69 Emboden, pp. 16-19. This tree is related to the Cocoa bean
tree and is also referred to as Cheiranthodendron pentadactylon.
Other names associated with this tree are the Spanish " arbol de
las manitas, or flow de manita" and as "mano de leon". Pesman,
p. 208 list "Mano de Dragon" and "Handflower Tree" as other
monikers.
PAGE 25
ulcers. Also useful in the cure of
flatulence and snakebites. The juice
of the maguey contains "sugar agavose" which is known for
medicinal use(*70). The juice of this plant has properties
beneficial as a diuretic and an antisyphilitic(*71). See
also COLOPAHTLI OCTLI and AGUAMIEL listings.
The leaves and root produced by this plant were used in the
preparation of medicines as well as the various alcoholic
beverages such as pulque and mescal(*72). Fibers of this plant
were used in weaving, the spines as sewing needles. A type of
soap(*73) was also produced from this plant. Next to corn, this
plant was the most revered in Aztec society with over four
hundred deities associated with it.
MAIZE - From Spanish word "maiz". From the Taino word "mahiz".
Nahuatl equivalent is "tlaolli", meaning "dried, shelled maize".
Twenty five varieties of maize are known to have grown in the
Valley of Mexico. The kernels of the Maize were used in fortune
telling by the fortune teller and seer, and the root used for the
cure of fever ailments. Also used to cure
impotence and facial swelling.
fatigue, ulcers, and
kidney ailments were also treated with Maize in it's
drug form. Maize further held a spiritual place among the
Mexica, almost metaphysical. Maize was life to the Mexica.
____________________
70 Bridgwater, p. 25.
71 Coon, p. 49.
72 Mescal, a low grade tequila, is mostly made from the Agave
tequilana plant grown primarily in extensive fields located
between the Tequila and Guadalajara regions. Both liquors are
produced from the leaf base of the plant. After the plant
matures and is ready to flower the leaves are cut, some weighing
over a hundred pounds, and are called "cabezas" or in English
"heads". According to Gentry, p. 15, it takes approximately
eight years to grow the head which produces about five liters of
tequila each. After being taken to distilleries, the heads are
cooked for three to four days and the starches of the meristem
are quickly converted to sugar. Fermentation is then allowed.
The pulp is then pressed and the liquor is extracted. Other
varieties, such as the Agave angustifolia, have been used for
production as well. Mescal has always been considered as lower
quality and may be compared to "moonshine" produced in the
Southeastern United States.
73 Soap was also produced from the roots of a tree the Aztecs
called copal-xocotl which the Spaniards called the "soap tree".
Wolfgang von Hagen, p. 76 refers to this tree as "Saponaria".
PAGE 26
MATLALITZTIC - Commelina pallida. Used medicinally as an
antihaemorrhagic.
MATLALXOCHITL - A plant root. "overheated eyes"
could be treated with this root after curing the root with
mother's milk(*74).
MIXITL - See also TLAPATL. A datura derivative. Of this drug
Sahagun related that it's effects "deadens the testicles" and
"tightens the throat"(*75).
MIZQUITL - (mesquite). Also known as the Honey Mesquite. Many
varieties but the medicinal variety was probably Prosopis
juliflora (*76). The sap of the tree was collected on the head of
a pin and rubbed on the eye as a cure for eye ailments. The
leaves of this plant were combined with and ground with "mothers
milk", or morning dew, and also used to relieve eye
pain. Gum which extruded from the bark was eaten as candy or even
as a dye in pottery repair.
Leaves of the mesquite were used to cure head lice and for hair
restoration(*77). Also used to eradicate ringworm,
dysentery, and as a relief for fevers, chest pain, (heart attacks?).
MUSHROOMS. Referred to by the Mexica as "the flesh of the gods".
Both wild and domestic production. Certain varieties were used
as a mind altering drug and for medicinal purposes. See also
PEYOTL and NANACATL listings.
NANACATL or (TEONANACATL) Amanita muscaria - narcotic meaning
"The Flesh of the Gods" or possibly "sacred fungus"(*78).
Mushroom that is bitter in taste and gives visions to the eaters.
Mixed with "obsidian wine" this drug may have been given to
sacrificial victims(*79). Warriors and merchants would take this
____________________
74 Wolfgang von Haggen, p. 111. He further notes that someone
suffering from this affliction would abstain from sex during the
treatment and wear a red crystal and the eye of a fox.
75 Vogel p. 165.
76 Alcaron p. 250. Pesman p. 49 lists this plant as Prosopis
chilensis (juliflora) and vars.
77 Hair loss might also be treated with deer or dog urine,
Wolfgang von Hagen, p. 111.
78 Soustelle, p. 155. This author further related properties of
this mushroom as inducing lechery and creating visions.
79 Clendinnen p. 93. Duran, translators notes, p. 178.
PAGE 27
drug and induce visions in the hope of looking into their future
destiny. Also known as "The Divine Mushroom", See also TLAPATL
listing.
NIXTAMALAXOCHITL - Used medicinally as a counter-spasmodic.
NOPAL - Opuntia humifusa, (Cactaceae). Also known as prickly
pear cactus, and the Indian fig. Depicted on the national flag
of Mexico, upon which an Eagle is perched holding a snake. In
Mexico the plant is known as "nopal", and the fruit as "tuna".
Emollient properties are associated with the fruit produced
from this plant and may have a diuretic effect when eaten.
Many other properties have been associated with the Nopal
including help with joint pain, nausea,
and mental diseases. Leaves of this cactus were ground and mixed
with water and given to women for help in
childbirth. The plant grows prominently in the
Valley of Mexico and plays a central part in Aztec mythology.
OBSIDIAN - Volcanic rock. When crushed and finely powdered, this
stone was placed onto wounds or sores to aid in healing(*80).
OCPATLI. Herb. Roots of this herb were added to pulque in the
fermentation process to add force to the drink(*81).
OCTLI - (PULQUE). May be likened to beer. An intoxicant. A
foul tasting brew made from various members of the Agave
plant(*82) and fermented with the drug ocpatli. Pulque was often
____________________
80 Other stones used in the healing process are mentioned by
Soustelle, pp. 196-197. Among them are "eztetl", or blood stones,
which have the power to stop nose bleeding, and
"quiauhteocuitlatl", meaning gold of rain, given to those who are
afraid of thunder, or suffering from fever. Soustelle relates
that the latter stone can be found in the Jalapa, Itztepec and
Tlatlauhquitepec areas.
81 Gentry, p. 10. Very little is known about this drug. I
speculate that this drug could be a derivative of OLOLIUHQUI, if
not the drug itself.
82 Gentry, p. 13, lists several of the members of the Agave
family that were commonly used to produce pulque Agave
salmiana, a smaller leafed plant grown near Puebla, Tlaxcala and
on the plains of Apam. Agave mapisaga, a large leafed giant
plant often grown along with Agave salmiana in the Michoacan,
Morelos, Puebla, Michoacan and Zacatecas regions. Agave
atrovirens, grown in the cool mountain regions of the Sierra
Madre Oriental, Oaxaca, and possibly Puebla and Vera Cruz
regions. Agave ferox, grown in Puebla and the Oaxaca areas.
Agave hookeri, cultivated in the highlands of Michoacan. Agave
americana, a plant well suited to the arid regions near Nuevo
Leon, and Durango as well as cultivated near Michoacan and
Oaxaca. Gentry further lists a chemical breakdown of pulque
listing a product that is high in iron, carotene, thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid, protein, calcium, phosphorus,
and ash.
PAGE 28
flavored with barks, roots and herbs. Although there were
strict social conditions among the Aztec for the consumption of
pulque, these restraints were lifted when used medically. Likely
any small ailment was a good excuse to take this medicine.
Pulque held the distinction of actually being good for the body
as it was rich in amino acids, minerals, and vitamins.
Unlike the production of mescal and tequila, where the leaves
were cut and processed, pulque was collected from the basin of
the plant on a daily basis as it formed from the plant's own
sap(*83). See also MAGUEY and OCPATLI listings.
OLOLIUHQUI, Rivea corymbosa - meaning " A Thing That Has Become
Round Like A Ball". Spelling may have been "ololiuqui". Vine
that produces fruit known as Rivea corymbosa. Seeds were used
medically to produce a narcotic intoxicant or as a vision
inducer. Used in an enema and for fever. Cure for
syphilis, constipation, pain, tumors, eye pain,
and flatulence. Mixed with a hard resin it helps
with the cure and mending of broken bones; and can
be used to stimulate an appetite. Ground root is
mixed with water or other bases and used as a cure for
stomach ache or nausea and as a
laxative. The seeds of this plant can cause hallucinations(*84).
Also used as a drug to induce a sort of divinity or could be
consulted as a sort of oracle. Other spelling may be Ololiuqui
"morning glory(*85)". Ololiuhqui was also referred to as
Tlamacazqui Cecec, meaning "cold priest"? Could have been used
as a collective word to represent all medicines that reduced
fever or fever related ailments. The word
Ololiuhquii derives from the noun ce-ce-o, loosely meaning "one
that has become cold, or to become cold".
_________________________________
83 The raw sap of the Agave plant was called "aguamiel" and
considered a beverage itself. This sap was processed, or
fermented, into pulque.
84 Irene Nicholson, p. 68, references this drug to contain
lysergiic acid properties, a fundamental compound used to produce
a more modern drug known as (LSD).
85 The MORNING GLORY is known to contain a substance close to LSD
and contains the drug PSILOCYBIN, which is related to LYSERGIC
ACID DIETHYLAMIDE and to SEROTONIN, a hormone in our brain
chemistry.
*** I received the following in reference to footnote #85
----- Original Message -----
From: David Isaak
Subject: Aztec medicine
Just a note--I happened to be browsing the section on Aztec medicine
and noted that, in footnote 85, morning glories (Rivea corymbosa and
Ipomoea violacaea) were listed as containing LSD-like compounds,
which is true enough. Unfortunately this same note went on to state
that they contained psilocybin compounds, which insofar as I am aware
is false. The chemistry of these plants has been extensively studied
by no one less than Albert Hofmann (discoverer of LSD), and although
he found many LSD-related compounds (lysergic acid amides, ergine,
ergoclavine, and several others), there is no report of psilocybin
compounds. In fact, as far as I know, psilocybin and psilocin have
never been found outside the fungi; they are the active principle
in the Aztec sacred mushrooms, but I don't believe that they have
ever been reported in so-called "higher plants." If they did occur
outside the fungi, it would be news that would cause no small
degree of astonishment in the field of phytochemistry...
PAGE 29
The seed of this plant, a type of morning-glory, is stored within
the plant flowers which grow approximately one inch long. The
fruit of the plant is useless but does contain a single seed.
Mixed with other drugs and pastes, a potion was created and
painted onto priests bodies. Also served in bowls as a type of
"divine food" for the gods. There are reports of forms of this
mixture being used today as part of pagan rituals.
PETUM - A herb. Drug with analgesic powers when used as an
ointment for the skin. According to Nicholson(*86), this drug,
when used with a hallucinogen and by a man unable to distinguish
between power and cruelty, could and was mishandled to evil
purposes. Priests who rubbed this ointment over their bodies
lost all fear and became cruel(*87). This drug was also
referred to as "the divine remedy" and the people may have had to
go to a priest to obtain it.
PEYOTL - (peyote). Also known as "mescal button". Meaning in
Nahuatl "a thing that glitters?, glows?". Formally Laphophora
williamsii. Irene Nicholson(*88) refers to this drug, or commonly
thought of as a mushroom, as a "small tuberous cactus". Also
known as "hikuri", to the Huichol tribes north of
Tenochtitlan(*89). Bluish green plant that is almost flat on
top. Thick root up to ten centimeters in length, with pink to
white flowers. A cactus, the fruit, or "button" as it is
sometimes called can be consumed as a narcotic, with strong
hallucinogenic properties. Classified as a "living rock" as it
blends in with the desert surrounding with a wrinkled and
leathery appearance.
____________________
86 Mexican and Central American Mythology, p.69.
87 Possibly used before sacrifices to dull them from the horror
and cruelty they were about to inflict on their victims. This is
an interesting point as if we are to believe Clendinnen and her
writings on the use of drugs for victim management, AZTECS, pp.
87-110, it is also possible that the priests conducting the
ceremonies may too have been "managed" with drugs.
88 P. 68.
89 The Huichol, located roughly in the current San Luis Potosi
region and other scattered Sonoran areas, were fond of making
yearly pilgrimages. They went under the leadership of a local
"mara' akame", or shaman, to collect the peyote. In some cases
the journey would be over three hundred miles and made after the
harvest festivals in October and the February rain ceremonies.
The Huichol considered the "fruit" to be the bearer of knowledge
of the immortal being. Modern pilgrimages in the old tradition
continue and are outlined in Campbell's book, pp. 294-298, as
well as in Nicholson's Mexican and Central American Mythology,
pp. 68-71.
PAGE 30
Divinity was attributed by the Mexica to one using this drug.
Medically used in an enema for fever. Thought to
have grown only in the land of the dead, "Mictlan"(*90). The
codex Magliabechiano, recto 90, shows an Indian eating peyotl
under the watchful eye of Mictlantecutli, lord of Mictlan,
presumably showing the Indian the way of the drug.
Much has been written on this hallucinogenic drug and is in
wide use today among several middle and north American Indian
tribes. The powerful drug "mescaline" is found in this cactus.
The molecule of mescaline is similar to that of a substance that
can be found in the blood of schizophrenics(*91). The drug is
used medicinally and in cultural/religious ceremonies(*92).
PICIYETL (piciete) - meaning "Tiny Tobacco". Nicotiana rustica.
a herbaceous species of tobacco used and treated as a deity and
to conjure a deity. Also used by medical practitioners in the
practice of fortune telling or as a talisman to stave off viscous
animals and certain insects. Medically
used as an aid in childbirth, toothache, pain, swollen head, rashes, and
fatigue. Placed in the navel for swollen stomachs and used for
the cure of diarrhea.
Piciyetl was thought to be of use in the treatment of
asthma, induce sleep, cure pain and disease of the
uterus, headaches, spleen, toothaches, syphilis, and snakebites. If you were a
warrior and wounded in
battle with an arrow, this drug was thought to help cure you.
Piciyetl could also be used to induce hallucinations. Often
mixed with other drugs. Mexica priests would carry a supply of
Piciyetl with them in a little bag. See also IYETL, IYAUHTLI,
PEYOTL, and CAHALALAHTLI listings.
QUANENEPILLI - meaning "Passion Flower". Used for the curing of
a man's chest pain. A tree or shrub as this is
____________________
90 For more information on the association of this drug with the
mythical land of the dead of the Mexica, consult Sahagun, Book of
Earthly Things, of the Florentine Codex.
91 Kruger, p. 162. Kruger further relates that the peyote roots
contain an antibiotic for cuts and bruises.
92 In the notes, p. 339, of her book, Clendinnen makes reference
to a work by Diego Munoz Camargo, Historia de Tlaxcalla, pp. 134-
5, in which the author claims the use of most psychotropic drugs,
like peyote, was only available to the lords of the society and
that the commoners drank pulque.
PAGE 31
referred to as being a type of bark and mixed with maize
porridge(*93).
QUAUHTLATLATZII - "Explosive tree". Hura polyandra. Also known
as Habilla de San Ignacio and as Sandboxtree. This tree produces
an irritating sap and care must be taken when handling the raw
wood. The flowers explode with force to scatter seeds. The
seeds are poison and were used to stun fish. This tree has
many native names including, CHICOMUSELO, JABILLA, and HABA.
QUETZAL YLIN - A tree. The bark of this tree when mixed with
select flowers was used to cure fatigue;.(*94)
SALT - Salt was used by the Mexica for the treatment of sore or
swollen throats and as a cure for general
eye; ailments. Salt was also added to the drugs
copalli and tequizquitl for eye relief. Mixed with
the drugs tzopilotl and tomatl for throat pain. See
also TEQUIXQUITL listing.
TENEXIYETL - meaning "Lime Tobacco". To make the drug tenexiyetl
one would grind the drug piciyetl and mix it with lime with ten
parts piciyetl and one part lime as the recipe, according to
Sahagun. Tenexiyetl could also be used as a sort of Talisman and
further used as an aid in fortune telling. Medically used as
ear drops or as a relief for jaw and mouth pain and
toothaches. Drug was also thought to be used in conjunction with
salt for the treatment of cysts.
TEONANACATL - See NANACATL listing.
TEQUIXQUITL - potassium nitrate. Added to copalli and salt for
the treatment of general eye diseases. Added to
tzopilotl and salt for swollen throat pain. See
also SALT, TZOPILOTL and TOMATL listings.
TEXIHXIHUITL - meaning "Rock Grass" or Turquoise grass?
Helitropium parviflorum. Shrub or tree with flowers and dry
fruit. Substituted in place of mesquite sap for eye
disease. Also used to cure ulcers, toothaches, tumors, fevers,
mange, and dysentery.
TLACHIHCHINOA - meaning "Over-The-Fire-Curer". Tournefortia
capitata? Small shrub with white flowers and small fruit. Used
____________________
93 Soustelle, p. 196. If one is to dissect the lament the
practitioner says during the treatment with this drug, it is not
hard to imagine the flu and a very congested chest.
94 Notes, p. 113, Wolfgang von Hagen. The author further relates
that in addition to general fatigue a strengthening of the heart
was accomplished.
PAGE 32
to cure eye disease with other herbs. The leaves of this
medicinal plant were often used by the Mexica in the relief of
fever. Often applied directly to festering sores.
Reduced swelling and used for treatment of pain
associated with toothaches.
TLACOPAHTLI - meaning "Stick Medicine". Aristolochia mexicana,
(Aristolochiaceae). Used in the treatment of
urine diseases. The root of this plant was thought to be a cure
for deafness and spleen injuries. Used as an astringent and as
a cure for worms. Additional use of this medicine
was use as a pain reliever, possibly for snakebites.
Properties of the plant are diaphoretic, as a stimulant and
as a tonic. In large doses the powdered root of this plant can
induce vomiting. Additional properties of this drug was to
stimulate the appetite. Also referred to as "yellow
root" and is a cousin to the "Texas snakeroot", A. reticulata.
TLACOSUCHIL - Bouvardia ternifolia. Known as Trompetilla and as
Little Trumpet. A bright red flower with from three to five
leaves. Used for the treatment of dysentery; and
hydrophobia;(*95).
TLANECHICOLPAHTLI - meaning "mixture medicine"? "To collect
things"? Used with four other herbs, huei nacaztli, xochimecatl,
coanenepilli, and xiuhcohcolin, for the control and management of
fever.
TLAPATL - "jimsonweed". Datura stramonium(*96), used for
relieving hunger. A tobacco plant and member of the nightshade
family(*97). Also known as Jamestown weed, apple of Peru,
____________________
95 Pesman p. 119.
96 Clendinnen, p. 93, makes reference to Datura stramonium being
mixed with wine in China as an anesthetic for minor surgery.
She further references it's use in India by dancing girls, "up to
no good", and used to drug a man causing uncontrolled dancing and
destruction of will. This "obsidian wine" may have been used to
control victims scheduled for sacrifice and to induce proper
victim behavior in front of the altars they were about to be
sacrificed upon. Murphey, in her book, describes this drug as
Datura metaloids, also referred to as "jimson weed" and used by
North American Indian tribes as a tea in which the drinker would
render himself unconscious and have visions, p. 50. There is
suggestion that jimson weed may also be smoked and have some
relief of asthma symptoms, Bridgwater, p. 1011. Coon, p. 99
further references uses of this drug for asthma and spasmodic
coughing in smoke form.
97 There are over 139 species of this dreaded family that have
been recorded in Mexico alone. World wide there may be as many
as 1200 that vary from herbs and shrubs to trees. Pesman, pp.
150-151.
PAGE 33
stinkweed, devil's weed, and the devil's trumpet. Also used as
a psychotropic drug. See also NANACATL listing. Seeds of this
plant were commonly mixed with wine(*98). The leaves of the
plant were collected when the plant was in flower and then dried.
As an anodyne and this drug is often substituted
for belladonna, (Atropa belladonna). Leaves of the plant are
often applied directly to boils. Further reference
to this plant being used for hay fever and the cure
of hemorrhoids(*99). Additional used were for
pain in the ears, gout, and as an
ointment for cracks in the feet. This drug could
also be smoked.
Datura contains several solanaceous alkaloids of the tropane
configuration, including atropine and hyoscyamine. Four
to five grams of the dried leaf of this plant is enough to kill.
The drug reacts in three phases. After first ingesting the drug
intense thirst, blurred vision and flushed skin is seen. Second
as symptoms become worse, the subject becomes delirious and
performs insensible acts. The last stage, or lethal dose, brings
on violent behavior, convulsions, and coma. Non lethal effects
can last as long as 48 hours with some mydriatic effects
lasting for up to two weeks(*100).
TLATLANQUAYE - A root. Used for the cure of boils.
The leaves were applied to the affected area and the area then
washed with urine.
TLAQUATL - meaning "A Thing That Is Eaten"? "An Opossum"?
Didelphis marsupialis. The opossum is a small nocturnal
marsupial. The tail is ground into a powder for use during
childbirth and to help the urinary
track with obstructions. Also used to expel things from the
body. A treatment to gather phlegm and
constipation. This drug further had laxative
properties. Taking the drug would expel the baby forcefully from
the birth canal. The life of the mother was considered more
valuable in Mexica society than the child. A midwife would
insert an obsidian knife into the vaginal passage and dismember
the baby should birth complications develop(*101).
_________________________
98 These is heavy speculation that this drug gave the "Obsidian
Wine", used to control prisoners, it's narcotic property.
99 Moore, p. 295.
100 Kingsburg, pp. 279-281.
101 A woman dead from childbirth roused heavy collective anxiety
among the Aztecs. This was an occurrence to be avoided. The
body of a woman dead from childbirth would be treated with great
care as it was a dangerous force. A hole would be made in the
back wall of the home and the body removed through the home and
not the usual household doorways. Should a mother die during
childbirth she was going to the goddess Toci. Women pregnant in
Mexica society were thought to be possessed by the Earth Mother,
called most frequently under her name of Quilaztli, "She Who
Makes Legumes Grow". Other names of the Earth Mother invoked by
the midwives were Coaciuatl, (serpent woman), Quauhciuatl, (eagle
woman), Yoaciuatl, (warrior woman), and Tzitziminciuatl, (devil
woman).
PAGE 34
TOBACCO - See PICIYETL and IYETL medicinal listings.
TOLUAH - Plant, or drug, mentioned in the Badianus Herbal, which
was written in 1552 by an Indian Doctor named Martin de la Cruz.
Plant probably related to the datura family with
hallucinogenic properties. See also TLAPATL listing.
TOMATE - meaning "A Plump Thing". Alacaron's book reminds the
reader not to confuse this plant with the common tomato which was
called "jitomate". Added with tequixquitl, salt and txopilotl to
cure sore throats.
TONATIUHYXIUH. A plant. Mixed with other plants and the blood
of a wolf, and the blood and excrement of other animals. This
drug was used in the cure of those who were "fear-
burdened"(*102).
TZOPILOTL - meaning "A Thing Hung Over Filth"? A tree with
poisonous seeds. This tree family includes the mahogany
tree. Mixed with tomatl and tequixquitl or salt, for sore
throats. Also used in an enema for stomach; pain and
to relieve general body fatigue. Thought by the Mexica medical
practitioners to be helpful to dissolve tumors; and
stomach ulcers.
XIUHAMOLLI - Mexica plant that was used with animal urine to cure
baldness.
XIUHCOHCOLIN - "A Turquoise Convoluted Thing"? A medicinally
used herb. This drug was mixed with other herbs in water for
fever. This root caused vomiting. The juice of this
herb cures ulcers of the mouth and
eyes.
XOCHIMECATL - meaning "Flower Rope". A herb. Mixed with other
medicinal herbs for the treatment of fevers.
_____________________________________
102 Wolfgang von Hagen, p. 113. He further makes reference to
this potion being mixed with "sea-foam", indicating a coastal
beginning.
PAGE 35
XOCHIOCOTZOCUAHUITL - meaning "Tree of Aromatic Rosin".
Liquidambar styraciflua. Also called Sweet Gum and Liquidambar.
Tree that can rise to over 140 feet. A balsam liquid amber forms
in cavities of the bark if the bark is injured. The balsam is
used in soap making and for incense. Used also for
toothaches.
XOLOITZCUINTLI - The small bred dogs mainly used for meat,
however, the fat from these dogs was also used for the healing of
wounds.
YAUHTLI - See IYAUHTLI listing. Tagetes lucida. Drunk for
chills. Also thought to cure gout and the leaves
were used in a massage for paralysis or as an
anesthesia.
YIAMOLLI - Phytolacca octandra. The berries of this plant were
used as a cure for dandruff. Additionally the Aztec
would use brewed sage or burdock leaves in the cure of
dandruff(*103).
YOLOXOCHITL - "Nobel Lord Flower". Talauma mexicana. Also known
as the Heartflower Tree. Early Aztec nobility would exclusively
use this tree and considered a solitary blossom enough to perfume
an entire house. Tree reaches up to ninety feet in height. The
bark is thought to be good for the heart. A close
relative to the Magnolia family of trees.
NOTE ..I have recently found the following web site on the modern use of several
of the drugs listed in this section and thought it would be of benefit to
place here. Notes on the Present Status of
Ololiuhqui and the Other Hallucinogens of Mexico
Return to Table of Contents
ADDITIONAL HERBAL PLANTS
The following listings are known herbal medicinal plants that
are found in Mexico or had a high probably of being traded for
and brought to Tenochtitlan either through tribute or
trade(*104). Use of some of these plants is speculative,
____________________
103 Vogel p. 128, 220.
104 Vogel p. 81, makes reference to L.S.M. Curtin's book HEALING
HERBS OF THE UPPER RIO GRANDE, and notes that evidence of trade
of medicine knowledge and supplies existed with present day US
Southwest Indian tribes and the Aztec.
PAGE 36
however, during the time of the Aztecs most were in use by north
American and South/Central American Indian tribes and the
probability of use in the central Mexican Valley is high.
Capsicum frutescens, (Capsicum or Cayenne pepper). General use
drug of the Mayas and known in Central and South America. During
the second voyage of Columbus this drug was mentioned by the
ship's doctor. Also used as a food condiment.
Carica papaya, (Papain). The dried fruit, sap and shoots were
possibly used by the Maya as a dietary aid.
Ceanothus americanus (Rhamnaceae). Also known as wild snowball,
New Jersey tea, and red root. A low lying shrub that grows to a
height of about three feet with white flowers. The name derives
from it's use as a substitute for the taxed tea from England
during the American Revolution. It's medical uses were as an
astringent, expectorant, and as a sedative. Sores of the
mouth as well as various venereal
diseases were also treated with an astringent produced from the
bark.
Chaetoptelea mexicana, The Ramrod Tree. May reach heights of 285
feet. The rough bark of this tree is used as an astringent
and for coughs.
Chenopodium ambrosioides, (var. anthelminticum). Also known as
wormseed, Mexican-tea, Spanish tea, ambrosia, stick weed,
epazote. Possible origin from Chili and transported over the
centuries to Mexico. This plant grows to approximately three
feet and produces small green flowers. The plant is
poisonous and is noted for producing tiny black seeds that
are used as an anthelmintic. Other uses involve boiling the
plant to extract an oil known as "chenopodium oil". Aztec uses
for this plant may have been for severe
menstruation, nervous afflictions, and as a poison
that affected the brain and spinal cord.
Coccus cacti, (Cochineal or Coccineal). Red juice of the insect.
Use as a coloring dye but also used in folk medicine.
Cordia dodecandra, (Cupate or Starbell). A tall tree that
produces edible fruit. Leaves are often used as sandpaper. The
bark produces a type of syrup while both it's leaves and fruit is
even today considered as a cough medicine.
Croton eluteria, (Cascarilla bark). Primary use as a tonic and
for scenting tobacco. Many species of Croton were used in a
variety of ways by the Maya, including for wounds
and as a diaphoretic.
PAGE 37
Dorstenia contrayerva, (Contrayerva). The root of this plant was
used by both the Aztecs and Maya. Possible uses as a relief for
fever or as use as a stimulant.(*105)
Exogonium purga, (Jalap or Jalap root). Introduced into Europe
from Mexico about 1565 and classified as a hydragogue
cathartic and purgative.(*106) Used as a resin or powder.
Hematoxylon campechianum, (Logwood). Used by the Aztecs as both a
dye and as an astringent.
Lucuma salicifolia, (Yellow Sapote). Known locally as
Coztizapotl and Zapote Borracho. Fruit is known for inducing
almost drunkenness symptoms. Seeds are reported to be
poisonous and to contain narcotic properties.(*107)
Maranta arundinacea, (Arrowroot). Used as a food by both the
Taino and Arawak tribes with further uses as antidote for arrow
poison. Mayan use of Arrowroot was ground and drunk for the
relief of pus in urine.
Mexican Scammony, (Ipomea, or Orizaba Jalap). The dried root of
I. orizabensis. Classified in the Badianus Manuscript as a
hydragogue cathartic.
Myrica cerifera, (Myricaceae). Also known as bayberry, myrtle,
and candle berry. The root bark of this plant is stripped into
tiny strips then dried and formed into a powder. The powder is
mixed with water, drunk, and is used as an astringent. Further
uses are for diarrhea and dysentery.
As snuff it is a treatment for nasal congestion.
Bayberry is also useful for bleeding gums. This
plant grows extensively in the coastal areas of Veracruz and
Yucatan.
Myroxylon (Toluifera) balsamum var. pereirae. Also known as the
Balm Tree or Balsamo. A tall tree, ninety feet high, from which
a balm was produced. The balm is produced from crushed bark in
the spring. The Aztec collected jars of this balm as
tribute(*108).
____________________
105 Vogel p. 409.
106 Vogel, p. 411.
107 Pesman, p. 242.
108 Pesman p. 200-201. Pesman further relates that the Spanish
introduced this balm to Europe and as early as 1562 Pope Pius IV
authorized his clergy to use this balm in religious rites calling
the balm "Balsamo Negro" and declaring the trees from which it
came as protected. This balm is still being produced in El
Salvador.
PAGE 38
Oenothera biennis, (Onagraceae). Also known as cureall, and tree
trimrose. A tall plant with yellow flowers. In medicine the
whole plant is harvested and dried and mixed with water for use
as an astringent and as a sedative.
Passiflora incarnata, (Passion Flower, or Apricot Vine). Emetic
and purgative uses. Possibly the Passiflora coerulea variety.
Quassia amara, (Quassia or Bitterwood). Possible use by the Maya
as an enema or for diarrhea. References to it's use for the cure
of irritation from pinworms, dyspepsia, and with
insecticidal properties(*109).
Ruta graveolens, (Rutaceae) also called rue, garden rue, and herb
of grace. Also called Eurasian. Aromatic tree or shrub that
grows to a height of about three feet. Mixed with coanenepilli
and imbibed for fever ailments. Drunk in tea form,
it has a mild sedative effect. This drug was not native to
Mexico and must have been traded for and brought to Tenochtitlan
through the extensive Mexica merchant trading system(*110).
Referred to as Rutaceae(*111). Thought to contain capillary
antihemorrhagics as well as Dietvitamins P factors.
Also thought to have been used to promote
menstruation or fetal expulsion(*112).
childbirth
Sanguinaria herba, (Blood herb). Mixed with urine, milk, and
salt it was poured into the nose to stop nose
bleeds.
Sechium edule, (Vegetable Pear). Also known locally as Chayote,
Chocho, Zuzu, Pipinella, and Mirliton. The yellow roots are
cooked much like potatoes. A very fast growing vine whose leaves
are thought to lower blood pressure and are today used to treat
arteriosclerosis.
____________________
109 Vogel, p. 413.
110 Coon, p. 178 states that this drug was actually brought to
the New World from Europe, but this is doubtful. Emboden, p. 79,
relates that in Europe, a Rue branch was dipped into holy water
and then sprinkled upon believers. Europeans thought that this
plant would "drive out demons" and act as a protector. The name
is derived from the Greek stem "reuo", meaning "to set free",
(from disease?). Ancient Greeks used an anointing oil of rue
juice and placed it upon the head of a person for protection.
111 Alcaron p. 251.
112 Vogel p. 244.
PAGE 39
Turnera diffusa, (Damiana or Turnera). Widely used drug
throughout Central America and Mexico. Leaf of this shrub was
used as a stimulant, laxative, or as an aphrodisiac.
Return to Table of Contents
AZTEC DEITIES WORSHIPED IN CONJUNCTION WITH MEDICINE
The Aztec worshiped hundreds of deities that
presided over the smallest activity that concerned their daily
lives. Several of their deities were connected with the field of
medicine and their diet. Chief among the deities listed here, as
it relates to the subject of medicine, would be Quetzalcoatl
"God of Wind", for it was he in his benevolence who gave to the
Mexica the science of medicine and, as told in legend, life
itself. Other deities, although perhaps not as prominent,
certainly held their place in the actual practice of medicine.
These deities were worshiped for their spiritual powers, their
association with the drugs used for treatment, and their ability
to stave off illnesses through personal penance and devotion.
Soon after the conquest of the Aztecs, the Spanish destroyed
thousands of codices, or manuscripts, that surely would have led
to our knowledge of deity/medicine connections. What little
information remains at least gives us an insight to the
connections the Mexica held between medicine and religion. A
conclusion could be drawn and argued that religion played an even
more important part in the healing process than we can even
suppose. The Mexica believed that the causes of
disease were placed into the body by divine intervention,
in this sense their medicine was no further advanced than their
European counterparts, and in many ways far superior. For more detailed
information on the Deities listed here, consult my work AZTEC RELIGION.
CENTEOTL - "The Corn God"(*113)
Spelling may also be "Cinteotl", meaning Sacred Maize-Ear. Also
known as Civeles and Our Grandmother. Was also the goddess of
medicine and herbs. Patron of doctors, midwives(*114) and
____________________
113 The term "teotl" appears frequently in the Spanish
pronunciation of the deities. As recorded by the Spanish the
term loosely means "god" or "saint". The root of the word is
"teo" with the suffix "tl". Townsend, pp. 115-116, relates that
the term "teotl" was primarily used to refer to nature-deities,
human impersonators of deities, and associated with some of their
masks and some ceremonial objects. He further expands to relate
"teotl" may refer to anything "mysterious, powerful, or beyond
ordinary experience".
114 After birth the Mexica midwife might relate the following
"You have come to reach the earth, the place of torment, the
place of pain, where it is hot, where it is cold, where the wind
blows. It is a place of one's affliction, of one's weariness, a
place of thirst, a place of hunger, a place where one freezes, a
place of weeping" "It is not true that it is a good place; it is
a place of weeping, a place of sorrow, a place where one
suffers". Brundage p. 178, relates this from his translation of
Sahagun. This ceremony certainly states the Mexica view of life
a little on the dark side.
PAGE 40
soothsayers. Also called Temazcalteci, "Grandmother of the
Baths"(*115). In her honor as Centeotl a woman was selected,
well fed, and sacrificed with her skin flayed and worn during a
feast/festival.
CHALCHIHUITLICUE - "Goddess of the Sea and Lakes"
"Goddess of Springs and Rivers". "Jade Skirt" "She Who Was
the Water". Other spelling may be Chalchiuhcueyeh, meaning "Jade
Skirt Owner". Also known at the goddess Matalcueyeh, meaning
"Blue Skirt Owner"(*116). Also known as Xoxouhqui Ihuipil, or
Xoxouhqui Icue, Meaning "Her Skirt is Green". During birthing
ceremonies may have been worshiped as Chalchiuh Tlatonac.
Chalchihuitlicue was worshiped during the birthing process and
with the arrival of a newborn a special ceremony by the midwife
would be held. The ceremony involved the midwife shouting war
cries in honor of the battle the mother fought giving birth, and
for the woman having become a warrior and capturing a baby. The
cord would be ceremoniously cut(*117) while the midwife would
tell the baby of life and what was expected of it. During the
first ritual bath the midwife would describe the purifying water
god and tell the baby about Chalchihuitlicue(*118).
________________________________
115 Boone p. 214, related that these bath houses were called
"temazcalli". Boone's translation further related that a sick
person would often be brought to a bath house. A person who
acted as an advocate for the sick would stand in the doorway.
Offerings consisting of copal were made to an idol of the deity
Tezcatliopoca in the hopes of curing the afflicted person. Plate
77 of the Codex Magliabechiano depicts a scene at the bath house.
116 Alacaron, notes p. 230.
117 A cord from a male child would be kept and taken to a warrior
to be buried in a battlefield, a female chord would be buried
next to the family hearth. Great speeches were made during the
cord cutting ceremony and speaking of such things as the virtues
of hard work, duty, and the roles of men and women.
118 Following the first bath, the baby was ready for what me may
think of as a formal "baptism". The midwife would place a bowl
of water on a reed mat and begin placing out items appropriate
for the sex of the baby. The male would have a small bow and
arrow placed on a shield made from a tortilla. The profession of
the family may dictate appropriate items, such as metal working
tools in the case of metal workers. A girl might have spinning
instruments or female clothing items. The midwife would then
walk counterclockwise around the items and talk to the child
while the baby was again bathed and massaged, and presented four
different times to the sky and water. Older children would then
run through the streets proclaiming the name of the baby. The
Codex Mendoza records this ceremony.
PAGE 41
IXQUITECATL - "God of Sorcerers"
Name meaning "Popcorn Side", in the prepositional sense of
"beside the popcorn". Name further has meaning as "Person from
Izquitlan"(*119). Worshipped by members of the healing arts
class as worshiped by sorcerers
were often brought in after more herb traditional healing methods
failed.
IXTILTON - "Little Black One"
Ixtilton was a lieutenant of the patron god of the Mexica,
Huitzilopochtli. Ixtilton was credited with going to little
children in their beds and bringing them darkness and a peaceful
night sleep(*120). Also known and worshiped as the "God of
Medicine". Further associated with rain and agricultural
fertility in a deity status. Spelling may be Ixtlilton. As a
child fell sick it was taken to the temple of this deity where a
jar of black water called "ixtlilauh" was opened. The child
would drink of this liquid for a cure.
IZTACCIHUATL - "White Woman"
Mexica affected by blindness would worship this goddess. On the
feast day to this goddess a slave was painted green, to represent
the trees of the mountain for which she was named, and given a
white painted head to represent the snow capped peak of the
mountain. Children were carried to the mountain and sacrificed
in her honor as well as others who were sacrificed in
Tenochtitlan.
MAYAHUEL - "Goddess of the Maguay(*121) Plant" "The Lady on the
Tortoise Throne" "Goddess of Good Fortune"
_______________________________
119 Alarcon's book notes p. 229, contains further information on
this little known or referenced deity.
120 A beautiful and graceful solid black obsidian smooth mask
thought to represent this interesting deity is displayed in
Burland's book p. 59.
121 The leaves of the Maguay plant were referred to as breasts by
the Mexica.
PAGE 42
Said to have had (400) breasts to nurture (400) children.
Represented surrounded by the maguay plant. Associated with
female representation of pulque.
There were over 400 different deities associated with drinking
and drunkenness. Collectively they were referred to as
Totochtli, meaning rabbits. A legend concerning the discovery of
pulque has Mayahuel as a farmer's wife who one day tries to kill
a mouse in a field. During her chase of the mouse she noticed
sap emerging from a maguay plant the mouse had been nibbling on.
Mayahuel collected the sap and took it home to her husband where
the two drank it and developed a good feeling. Mayahuel then
gave the sap to the gods who rewarded her with deity status and
her husband also became the deity Xochipilli, "Lord of Flowers".
QUETZALCOATL - "GOD OF WIND"
Associated with giving the Mexica the knowledge of medicine,
science, agriculture and all good things. Blood letting was
taught by this god. Considered a great benevolent god.
Quetzalcoatl is credited with creating the human life that was
present on the earth by letting his blood over human bones that
he and his twin brother, Xolotl(*122), retrieved from Mictlan,
the land of the dead.
Hope may have been instilled in the sick through worship to this
most important deity in Mexica culture. He discovered corn, and
all good aspects of civilization. The Mexica thought of
Quetzalcoatl is a perfect representation of saintliness and
revered him and his image.
A typical use of this deity as told in Boone's translation of the
Codex Magliabechiano, pl. 77, related that a medicine man(*123)
or woman would gather twenty corn kernels and throw them on to a
white cloak which was presided over by an image of Quetzalcoatl.
If the kernels fell into a circular pattern the sick person was
thought to be of no hope and would die. If the kernels separated
on throwing into other patterns the victim or person who had the
disease would eventually recover(*124).
QUILAZLI - "She Who Makes Legumes Grow"
Patron of Midwives. Also known to the Mexica and worshiped as
Coaciuatl (Cihuacoatl), Serpent Woman, Quauhciuatl, Eagle Woman,
Yoaciuatl, Warrior Woman, and Tzitziminciuatl, devil woman.
____________________
122 Some legends have Xolotl, twin brother to Quetzalcoatl,
actually shedding the blood over the bones of man and giving life
to the Mexica.
123 Probably a "Ticitl".
124 Boone, p. 214.
PAGE 43
TLALOC - " The God of Rain"
Tlaloc is associated with the infliction of diseases such as ulcers,
leprosy, foot trouble, and dropsy.
TEZCATLIOPOCA - "The Mirror That Smokes"
"He Who Slaves We Are", "The Mocker", " The Enemy of Both Sides".
All men were slaves of Tezcatliopoca and children were thought to
be given destinies and pre-ordained illness by this deity.
Praying to the god was always an option during severe
illness(*125). Although the Mexica knew the process to make a
baby, they believed that the
conceived child was placed into
the womb by Tezcatliopoca. This deity was thought to afflict
illness for no other reason than his amusement. A
sudden illness would often be thought to
have been inflicted by Tezcatliopoca, often for reasons known
only to the gods.
TLAZOLTEOTL - " The Eater of Filth"
Caused an evil spell, called "tlazolmiquiztli", meaning death by
lust to those engaged in carnal sin or any type of forbidden
love. A steam bath along with the rite of purification and
calling upon this goddess for forgiveness may end the suffering,
however, relatives of the couple may continue to suffer from
melancholy.
TZAPATLAN TENEN - "The Goddess of Turpentine"
Her substance was said to produce turpentine. Name may mean
"Someone's mother in Tzapotlan". Thought by the Mexica to have
been the goddess that discovered the medicinal use of Ohxitlm,
meaning turpentine.
XIPE TOTEC - "Our Lord of the Flayed One"
Thought to give eye diseases.
XOCHIPILLI - "God of Youth, Music and Flowers"
Men and women engaged in forbidden love were given venereal
diseases, skin diseases, or piles by this otherwise benevolent
god.
____________________
125 Considering the faith the Mexica placed into destiny it is a
wonder that they practiced medicine at all.
Return to Table of Contents
PAGE 45
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ALCARON, Hernando Ruiz de. Trans. by J. Richard Andrews and Ross
Hassig. TREATISE ON THE HEATHEN SUPERSTITIONS THAT TODAY LIVE
AMONG THE INDIANS NATIVE TO THIS NEW SPAIN, 1629. Norman
University of Oklahoma Press, 1984(*126).
ANDERSON, Edward F. PEYOTE THE DIVINE CACTUS.
Tucson University of Arizona Press, 1980.
ANDREWS, J. Richard. INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL NAHUATL.
Austin University of Texas Press, 1975.
ARIZONA DAILY STAR, NEWSPAPER, Tucson Arizona.
ATKINSON, D.T. MAGIC MYTH AND MEDICINE.
Cleveland The World Publishing Co., 1956.
BLUNT, Wilfrid. THE ART OF BOTANICAL ILLUSTRATION.
New York Charles Schribner Sons, 1951.
BOONE, Elizabeth Hill. THE CODEX MAGLIABECHIANO AND THE LOST
PROTOTYPE OF THE MAGLIABECHIANO GROUP. Berkeley University of
California Press, 1983(*127).
BORAH, Woodrow, and Sherburne F. Cook. THE ABORIGINAL POPULATION
OF CENTRAL MEXICO ON THE EVE OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST. Berkeley
University of California, 1963.
BRADEN, Charles S. RELIGIOUS ASPECTS OF THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO.
Durham Duke University Press, 1930.
BRANDT, Linda. Editor. CACTUS AND SUCCULENTS.
Menlo Park, California Sunset Publishing Co., 1991.
BRAY, Warwick. EVERYDAY LIFE OF THE AZTECS.
New York Dorset Press, 1987.
BRIDGWATER, William, & Sherwood, Elizabeth J., editors, THE
COLUMBIA ENCYCLOPEDIA. Morningside Heights, New York Columbia
University Press, 1956.
____________________
126 Alcaron's book, or rather the editors of the book, J. Richard
Andrews and Ross Hassig, have listed an extensive bibliography
consisting of many medical reports, magazines and technical
manuals concerning this subject area. If this book is
unavailable in your local library I suggest an inter-library
loan. This is a great place to start. Sahagun's works are
another source worth your research time and depict drawings of
some of the plants mentioned here.
127 This two volume set also included a reproduction of the
original publication by Zelia Nuttall titled THE BOOK OF THE
ANCIENT MEXICANS, which has since become generally known as the
Codex Magliabechiano.
PAGE 46
BRUNDAGE, Burr Cartwright. THE FIFTH SUN AZTEC GODS, AZTEC
WORLD. Austin University of Texas Press, 1979(*128).
BURLAND, Cottie, and Werner Forman. THE AZTECS GODS AND FATE IN
ANCIENT MEXICO. New York Galahad Books, 1975.
BURLAND, Cottie, and Werner Forman. GODS AND FATE IN ANCIENT
MEXICO. Mexico Panorama Editorial Mexico, 1980.
CAMPBELL, Joseph. HISTORICAL ATLAS OF WORLD MYTHOLOGY VOL. 3
MYTHOLOGIES OF THE PRIMITIVE PLANTERS THE MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN
AMERICAS. New York Harper & Row Inc., 1989.
CASO, Alfonso. Trans. by Lowell Dunham. THE AZTECS, PEOPLE OF
THE SUN. Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.
CLENDINNEN, Inga. AZTECS.
New York Cambridge University Press, 1991.
COON, Nelson. USING PLANTS FOR HEALING.
Emmaus, Pa. Rodale Press, 1979.
CULBERT, T. Patrick. THE LOST CIVILIZATION THE STORY OF THE
CLASSIC MAYA. New York Harper & Row Inc., 1974.
DAVIES, Nigel. PEOPLE OF THE SUN.
London Macmillan & Co., 1973.
DIAZ, Bernal del Castillo. Edited by Genaro Garcia. Translated
with notes and introduction by A. P. Maudslay. Introduction to
the American edition by Irving A. Leonard. THE DISCOVERY AND
CONQUEST OF MEXICO 1517-1521. New York Noonday Press, 1966.
DURAN, Diego d. Trans. by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden.
BOOK OF THE GODS AND RITES AND THE ANCIENT CALENDAR. Norman
University of Oklahoma Press, 1971.
EMBODEN, William A. BIZARRE PLANTS MAGICAL, MONSTROUS,
MYTHICAL. New York Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974.
EMMART, Emily W. HERB MEDICINE OF THE AZTECS. Journal of the
American Pharmaceutical Association 26 pp.42-45, 1937.
EMMART, Emily W. THE BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT AN AZTEC HERBAL OF
1552. Baltimore Johns Hopkins Press, 1940(*129).
____________________
128 This author also wrote A RAIN OF DARTS, also by the
University of Texas Press, which is a wonderful book about the
eleven Mexica kings.
129 THE BADIANUS HERBAL Original housed in the Vatican Library.
Only known Mexica codex dealing with the study of medicine and
Aztec flora. Also contains myths and legends of the power of
stones and various animals. Re-discovered in 1929 in the Vatican
Library by Charles Upton Clark. Also known as the De La Cruz-
Badianus Manuscript of 1552.
PAGE 47
FACKELMANN, Kathy A. AZTEC CURE FOR OFFICIAL FATIGUE BATHING IN
MIXTURE OF HERBS, ANIMAL BLOOD AND BIRD GIZZARD STONES.
Science News, March 27, 1993, p.207.
GARDNER, Joseph I. Editor. MYSTERIES OF THE ANCIENT AMERICAS
THE NEW WORLD BEFORE COLUMBUS. Pleasantville, New York The
Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1986.
GENTRY, Howard Scott. AGAVES OF CONTINENTAL NORTH AMERICA.
Tucson University of Arizona Press, 1982.
GIBSON, Charles. THE STRUCTURE OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE. Handbook of
Middle American Indians, Vol 10, pp. 323-394. Austin University
of Texas Press, 1971.
GILLMORE, Frances. THE KING DANCED IN THE MARKETPLACE.
Tucson University of Arizona Press, 1964.
GRUZINSKI, Serge. Trans. from French by Paul G. Bahn. THE AZTECS
RISE AND FALL OF AN EMPIRE. New York Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,
(Discoveries Series), 1992.
HAYS, Wilma and R. Vernon. FOODS THE INDIANS GAVE US.
New York Ives Washburn, Inc., 1973.
HENDERSON, John S. THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENT MAYA.
Ithaca Cornell University Press, 1981.
HILL, Ann Ed. A VISUAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF UNCONVENTIONAL MEDICINE.
New York Crown Publishing, 1979.
INNES, Hammond. THE CONQUISTADORS.
New York Alfred A. Knopf, 1969.
KARTTUNEN, Frances. AN ANALYTICAL DICTIONARY OF NAHUATL.
Austin University of Texas Press, 1983.
KRUGER, Helen. OTHER HEALERS, OTHER CURES A GUIDE TO
ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE. New York The Bobbs-Merrill Co. Inc.,
1974.
KINGSBURG, John M. POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE UNITED STATES AND
CANADA. Englewood Cliffs Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964.
LEHNER, Ernst and Johanna. FOLKLORE AND SYMBOLISM OF FLOWERS,
PLANTS, AND TREES. New York Tudor Publishing Company, 1960.
LEOPOLD, Starker A.. WILDLIFE OF MEXICO THE GAME BIRDS AND
MAMMALS. Berkeley University of California Press, 1959.
PAGE 48
LOCKHART, James. NAHUAS AND SPANIARDS POSTCONQUEST CENTRAL
MEXICAN HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY. Stanford Stanford University
Press, 1991.
MAKINS, F.K. HERBACEOUS GARDEN FLORA.
London J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1957.
MARTINEZ, Maximino. PLANTAS UTILES DE LA FLORA MEXICANA. Mexico
Ediciones Botas, 1959.
MARTINEX, Maximino. LAS PLANTAS MEDICINALES DE MEXICO.
Mexico Ediciones Botas, 1959.
MERCATANTE, Anthony S. ZOO OF THE GODS.
New York Harper & Row, Publishers, 1974.
MEYER, Michael C., Sherman, William L. THE COURSE OF MEXICAN
HISTORY. New York Oxford University Press, 1979.
MILES, Karen. HERB & SPICE HANDBOOK.
Norway, Iowa Frontiere Cooperative Herbs, 1987.
MOORE, Michael. MEDICINAL PLANTS OF
THE PACIFIC WEST.
Santa Fe Red Crane Books, 1993.
MONTE, Tom. WORLD MEDICINE THE EAST WEST GUIDE TO HEALING YOUR
BODY. New York The Putnam Publishing Group, 1993.
MURPHEY, Edith Van Allen. INDIAN USES OF NATIVE PLANTS.
Ft. Bragg, California Mendocino County Historical Society, 1959.
NEWMAN, Arnold. TROPICAL RAINFOREST A WORLD SURVEY OF OUR MOST
VALUABLE AND ENDANGERED HABITAT WITH A BLUEPRINT FOR ITS
SURVIVAL. New York Facts on File Inc., 1990.
NICHOLSON, H. B. RELIGION IN PRE-HISPANIC CENTRAL MEXICO
HANDBOOK OF MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS, VOL. 10, PP. 395-446.
Austin University of Texas Press, 1971.
NICHOLSON, Irene. MEXICAN AND CENTRAL AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY.
New York Peter Bedrick Books, 1985.
NUTTALL, Zelia. THE BOOK OF THE LIFE OF THE ANCIENT MEXICANS
CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT OF THEIR RITES AND SUPERSTITIONS.
Introduction, Translation and Commentary by the author. Part I.-
Introduction and Facsimile. Berkeley University of California
Press, 1903(*130).
ODY, Penelope. THE COMPLETE MEDICINAL HERBAL.
New York Dorling Kindersley, 1993.
____________________
130 This book was reproduced by Elizabeth Hill Boone in her work,
also published by the University of California Press.
PAGE 49
PERRY, Frances, and Hay, Roy. A FIELD GUIDE TO TROPICAL AND
SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. New York Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
PESMAN, M. Walter. MEET FLORA MEXICANA.
Globe Arizona Six Shooter Canyon, Dale S. King Pub., 1962.
PORTILLA, Miguel Leon. Trans J. Eruory Davis. AZTEC THOUGHT AND
CULTURE. Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.
PRESCOTT, William H. HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. Vols. 1
& 3. Philadelphia J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1873.
POZO, Efren C. EMPIRICISM AND MAGIC IN AZTEC PHARMACOLOGY.
Public Health Service Publication no. 1645, pp. 59-76.
1971.
RIHA, Jan & Subik, Rudolf. Trans. by Dona Hubova. THE
ILLUSTRATED ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CACTI AND OTHER SUCCULENTS.
Secaucus, New Jersey Chartwell Books, 1993.
RINPOCHE, Ven. Rechung, and Jampal Kunzang. Trans. TIBETAN
MEDICINE. Berkeley University of California Press, 1973.
SAHAGUN, Bernardino de Fr. Trans. by Fanny R. Bandelier from the
Spanish version of Carlos Maria de Bustamante. A HISTORY OF
ANCIENT MEXICO. Nashville Fisk University Press, 1932.
Republished by Blaine Ethridge Books, Detroit, 1971.
SAHAGUN, Bernardino de Fr. THE FLORENTINE CODEX GENERAL HISTORY
OF THE THINGS OF NEW SPAIN. Twelve books in thirteen vols.
Trans. by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble. Santa Fe
School of American Research and the University of Utah Press,
1950-1982(*131).
____________________
131 This is not an easy series to obtain and there have been
several printing of the different books in the series.
Collections can be found in several large University libraries.
Listed here is a guide that may be of help.
1951 THE CEREMONIES. BOOK 2
1952 THE ORIGIN OF THE GODS. BOOK 3
1953 THE SUN, MOON, STARS, AND THE BINDING OF THE YEARS. BOOK 7
1954 KINGS AND LORDS. BOOK 8
1957 THE SOOTHSAYERS AND THE OMENS. BOOKS 4 AND 5
1959 THE MERCHANTS. BOOK 9
1961 THE PEOPLE. BOOK 10
1963 EARTHLY THINGS. BOOK 11
This volume is primarily devoted to the study of medicine and
contains mentions of many drugs and plants used by the Aztecs,
1969 RHETORIC AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY. BOOK 6
1970 THE GODS. BOOK 1
1975 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. BOOK 12
PAGE 50
SCHENDEL, Gordon. MEDICINE IN MEXICO FROM AZTEC HERBS TO
BETATRONS. Austin University of Texas Press, 1968.
SOUSTELLE, Jacques. Trans. from the French by Patrick O'Brian.
THE DAILY LIFE OF THE AZTECS ON THE EVE OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST.
New York The Macmillan Company, 1962.
STANDLEY, Paul C. TREES AND SHRUBS OF MEXICO.
Washington, D. C. Smithsonian Institution. 1920-1926.
TOOR, Francis. A TREASURY OF MEXICAN FOLKWAYS.
New York Crown Publishers, 1947.
TOWNSEND, Richard F. THE AZTECS.
London Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1992.
TRACY, Toni M. Ed. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS.
Baltimore Williams & Wilkins, 1984.
VOGEL, Virgil J. AMERICAN INDIAN MEDICINE.
Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.
WOLFGANG von HAGEN, Victor. THE ANCIENT SUN KINGDOMS OF THE
AMERICAS. Cleveland The World Publishing Co., 1961.
The following libraries were consulted during the preparation of
this publication The University of Arizona, Tucson The
University of Texas, Austin The University of California,
Berkeley The Tucson/Pima County Library system, Tucson The
Humboldt County Library system, Eureka.
Return to Table of Contents
INDEX
Anesthesia... 34
Anthelmintic... 35
Antihemorrhagics... 37
Antisyphilitic... 24
Aphrodisiac... 38
Astringent... 35, 36, 37
Atropine... 32
Cannibalism... 10
Deformities... 6
Deities/medicine
-- causes of disease... 38
-- childbirth... 42
-- sudden illness... 42
-- worshiped by sorcerers... 40
Dentistry
-- pain... 22
-- teeth... 11
-- toothache... 30
Diaphoretic... 31, 36
Diet
-- basic diet of the Mexica... 9
-- beverage... 11
-- dietary aid... 35
-- vitamins... 8, 27, 37
Diuretic... 23, 24, 26
Emetic... 21
Emollient... 26
Gardens, medical... 4
Hallucinogenic... 28, 29, 33
Hernandez, Francisco... 6
Hospital system... 6
Hydragogue cathartic... 36
Hygiene... 5
Hyoscyamine... 32
Laxative... 28, 33, 38
Medicine
-- appetite... 28, 31
-- arteriosclerosis... 38
-- asthma... 30
-- baldness... 34
-- bleeding... 21
-- boils... 32
-- bones... 28
-- brain... 35
-- bruises... 24
-- chest pain... 21, 23, 26, 30
-- childbirth... 19, 24, 26, 30, 33, 37
-- colds... 19
-- common drugs... 18
-- constipation... 28, 33
-- cough... 36
-- cysts... 31
-- dandruff... 34
-- diarrhea... 19, 20, 22, 23, 30, 36
-- dysentery... 19, 21, 26, 31, 36
-- dyspepsia... 37
-- ear... 30, 32
-- enema... 19
-- epilepsy... 24
-- eye... 21, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 34
-- fatigue... 25, 30
-- feet... 32
-- fever... 19, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, 37
-- flatulence... 22, 24, 28
-- gout... 23, 34
-- gums... 5, 36
-- hay fever... 32
-- headaches... 21, 22, 30
-- heart... 34
-- hemorrhoids... 21, 24, 32
-- hernias... 20
-- hiccups... 23
-- impotence... 25
-- infections... 20
-- itching... 24
-- kidney ailments... 25
-- lameness... 19
-- lice... 24
-- mange... 31
-- menstruation... 35, 37
-- mouth... 34, 35
-- nasal... 36
-- nausea... 26, 28
-- nose bleeds... 37
-- pain... 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32
-- paralysis... 19, 34
-- pus... 36
-- rashes... 20, 30
-- respiratory... 19
-- ringworm... 26
-- scorpion stings... 21
-- sexual appetite... 24
-- snakebites... 21, 24, 30, 31
-- sores... 27, 31
-- spinal cord... 35
-- spleen... 30
-- stamina... 24
-- stomach... 19, 28, 33
-- swelling... 21, 22, 24, 25
-- syphilis... 28, 30
-- throat... 30, 31, 33
-- toothaches... 30, 31, 34
-- tumors... 19, 20, 28, 31, 34
-- ulcers... 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 31, 34
-- urinary... 21, 23, 31, 33
-- uterus... 30
-- venereal... 35
-- worms... 31
-- wounds... 27, 34, 36
Mental health
-- fear and apprehension... 12
-- hydrophobia... 31
-- in need of improvement... 3
Mydriatic effects... 32
Narcotic... 26, 28, 29, 32, 36
Naturopathic terms... 3
Poison... 19, 23, 30, 33, 35, 36
Practitioners... 16
Sedative... 35, 37
Stimulant... 21, 36, 38
Return to Table of Contents
WEB RESEARCH
History of
Biomedicine - Indigenous Cultures
Vanilla Aztec history of this food.
Spirulina Algae used as food source.
Chili History of Chili.
Chili Facts Much information.
Chocolate Information on chocloate.
Aztec Chocolate Drink Recipe.
The Aztec Empire And Cocoa From Cadbury.
Cocao Tree photo
Chocolate Lots of information.
Chocolate money Mesoamerican information
Amaranth Grain.
Amaranth Educational text
Centruy Plant agave americana
Avacodos Lots of information.
Avacodos With Aztec graphic.
Avocado oil Text information with graphic
Chayotes General information food.
Teonanacatl Mushrooms.
Food in Aztec Society General Information.
Mushrooms PSILOCYBIN MUSHROOMS
Aztec Corn Educational text
Corn History and statistical information.
Poinsettia history Educational text
Morning Glory Plant.
Plants You can order many varieties here.
Plant Alkaloids Many Mexican references.
Herbs Educational text
Traditional medicine Text in Spanish.
Aloe Vera History and uses.
Medicine Traditional medicine in English.
AZTEC FOOD & RELIGION THEN AND NOW Essay
Notes on the Present Status of
Ololiuhqui and the Other Hallucinogens of Mexico Medicine.
The Hallucinogenic Fungi Of Mexico Medicine.
Rubber Rubber in Mesoamerica article.
Other Aztec related links:
Religion of the Modern Aztlan Movement
Religion of the Mexica & Bibliography
Major Deitites of the Mexica
Minor Deitites of the Mexica
Mexica Culture
Aztec Life
Aztec Cannibalism: An Ecological Necessity?
The Aztec Account of the Spanish Conquest of Mexico
Commons 