AZTEC RELIGION - CULTURAL
Companion reference material to the study of Aztec Gods
AZTEC RELIGION
AZTEC STUDENT RESEARCH GUIDE
(C)1997-2005 (Thomas H. Frederiksen)
All rights reserved
AZTEC MYTHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
This section on the Mexica focuses on various religious aspects associated with
the Aztec (Mexica Tribe) and should be used as a companion to the Aztec Gods
section of this work. The Mexica believed in complete fate. Their lives
were in the hands of the deities and there was very little they could do about
it. Your lot in life was set the day you were born according to the
Astrological chart presented below.
AZTEC ASTROLOGY - DAY SIGNS(* 8)
The Aztec Astrology calendar consisted of 20 day signs with 13 houses (days) in
each group for a total of 260 days (*9 ). The tenth and thirteenth houses (days)
were ,generally in all the signs, considered good luck. The sixth house (day)
was considered unlucky in all of the day signs(*10 ).
As a parent of two I thought I had my share of problems and worry in the raising
of my children. As I was researching and writing this section my thoughts and
heart went out to the common Aztec parents and the anxiety and worry they must
have felt. From all of my research I believe that the common Aztec family
actually believed these prophecies to be true. After reading this section you
may be of the same opinion. With all the problems I had I never had to worry
about my children having a destiny to be crushed by rocks....TF
1. CECIPACTLI(* 11)- Considered a good luck sign but the luck could be lost due to
laziness. Wealth and prosperity followed these lucky people. By being a rogue or
disobedient(* 12), overbearing a person would change their luck and be friendless
and in want of contentment.
2. OCELOTL- Considered a bad luck sign. A great many slaves had this unfortunate
sign. Your fate(*13 ) could be changed by your intelligence. Fasting and not
sleeping very much improved your lot in life. Women were believed to look
forward to a life of poverty or having their heads crushed between two stones.
3. CEMACATL- A good luck sign provided it was not lost due to carelessness. Some
of the houses of this sign were considered bad. Bravery was considered a trait
of this sign. If you were born under the second house of this sign. Umetochtli,
you were believed to be destined to be a drunkard. People born on the sixth
house, Chicucenmalinalli, were destined to live in poverty and their children
would die early and in poverty.
4. CEXUCHITL- Music, pleasure, and ingenious were some of the attributed
associated with people born under this sign. Sign was indifferent, not good or
bad. You stood a good chance of becoming a joker or a buffoon. You may be
prosperous or lonely and forgotten by everybody and long for death to end you
suffering. Women not paying proper homage, could look forward to a life of
prostitution and poverty.
5. CEACATL- Considered a bad sign and to foster gossiping, backbiting, and
hypocrites. Said to be the sign of Quetzalcoatl. Liars were associated with the
ninth house of this sign. The tenth through thirteenth houses were considered
lucky and honesty and wealth and the respect of the community would be theirs.
The Aztec in general disapproved of the practice of talking about someone behind
their back.
6. CEMIQUIZTLI- A good luck sign. Sign of Tezcatlipoca. If you were devoted to
this sign you could look forward to the good grace of Texcatlipoca, the creator
of the universe, and his good fortune. Slaves(*14) were treated well during this
time. If you were born on the second house, Umemacatl, you had bad luck and were
cowardly and scared easily. Cowardly behavior would doom a man for entry into
the warrior classes.
7. CEQUIAVITL- A horrible day sign. Necromancers, wizards, and swindlers were
associated with this sign. Again the tenth through thirteenth houses were
considered lucky. The seventh house, Cequiavitl, was horrible luck and
associated with childhood diseases. Many prisoners were put to death during this
sign in the hopes of staving off at least some of the bad luck that was sure to
happen.
8. CEMALINALLI- A bad luck sign, however the second and the ninth on were
thought to be fortunate. People would be prosperous for a while then loose
everything. Children would be a sorrow. The second house, Umacatl, was ruled
over by Texcatlipoca and considered a good day. The ninth on were also
considered to be good days.
9. CECOATL- Good luck as long as it wasn't lost due to negligence. Merchants
were particularly fond of this sign. This was considered a good sign for warfare
and attain wealth. Merchants would wait for this day sign to begin travels or
long journeys. The sixth house was considered very unlucky and you would become
a tale-bearer, wary, deceitful and have poor health.
10. CETECPATL- A sign of happiness and said to be the sign of Huitzilpoctli. All
of the houses, (13 days of this sign), were considered lucky. Men would be
valiant, honest and wealthy. Women would always have enough to eat and be
vigorous.
11. CEOCUMATLI- Generally considered a lucky sign. A time of sickness especially
for children. If a good looking person fell ill during this time it was because
of envy by a god. Born on the second house, Umemalinalli, and you could look
forward to many children, however, none of them would live very long.
12. CUETZPAILIN- A good sign that signifies the lizard. those born under this
sign were considered strong. Good workers and wealth were to be expected. A
strong and healthy body could be looked forward to. Like a lizard a man born
under this sign could fall from a great height and land unharmed.
13. CEOLLIN- Sign of indifference, some good and some bad. If the parents took
good care of a child born under this sign he would prosper, but if not well
educated the child would be unlucky, poor and unhappy. The parental education
process of their child was very important in all aspects of society.
14. CEITZCUINTLI- Good fortune and luck are associated with this sign as it was
ruled by the fire god Xiuhtecutli. Chieftains elected under this sign would be
lucky in office. Many slaves would be owned and a wealthy life awaited these
lucky people.
15. CECALLI- An unlucky sign. People born under this sign were to die an
un-natural death. Unlucky, nasty, and obscenity were the traits of these people.
You may die in war, burned alive, or thrown against a stone wall, but never have
a happy life. You may get lucky and be made a slave but that was about all you
had to look forward to. Cheaters, gamblers, and thieves were of this day sign. A
woman born under this sign was thought to be stupid and overbearing and a lewd
woman. She was apt to sell herself as a slave and be sacrificed.
16. COZCAQUAUHTLI- A good luck sign. A long life awaited anyone born under this
day sign. Your parents must have enough wealth to invite friends to a feast or
your luck may change for the worse. As will most of the day signs your fate was
not sealed but proper devotion and ritual must be observed or your good fortune
and luck could easily turn to bad.
17. CEATL- A bad luck sign. People who were connected to the water were devoted
to this sign. An un-natural death awaited most. If you gain wealth you will most
likely loose it in the end. People with this day sign were constantly worried
that all of the good things that they had acquired in life would be destroyed or
taken away from them.
18. CEACATL- A bad luck sign, ruled by Quetzalcoatl. Swindlers were associated
with this sign. A female might become a witch and practice witchcraft, men might
become wizards.
19. CEQUAUHTLI- A bad luck sign. A sign of arrogance, men would die in battle,
women would be wicked and speak badly of people. Children and young girls were
in danger from disease during this time. Males born under this sign were said to
be valiant, bold and haughty. In the end males would die in battle.
20. CEXUCHITL- A very lucky sign, those born under this sign would prosper.
Abundance in all things awaited these fortunate people. They were good workers
and harvesters and generally made good use of their time. The Mexica admiration
of hard work is well noted.
AZTEC CREATION MYTHOLOGY
According to one legend the creation of the universe was the work of two
primordial deities, Ometecutli, Lord of Duality, and Omecihuatl, Lady of
Duality. As creators of initial life they produced four sons, Tezcatlipoca, Xipe
Totec, Quetzalcoatl, and Huitzilopochtli. Each of these gods was associated with
a different direction(*15 ), color, tree, bird, and other natural events.
Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli were credited with the creation of all human
and animal life as well as natural vegetation. Some of the other gods worshiped
by the Mexica were also created by these two deities.
THE FIVE AGES OF THE EARTH OR (SUNS)
The Aztec believed that the world was destined to be created and destroyed a
total of five times. The Aztecs Cortes found believed that they were living in
the fifth and final creation period(* 16).
1. Naui Ocelotl (Four Jaguar). The first age and was presided over by
Tezcatlipoca. This age consisted of giant beings that lived on acorns and were
eventually eaten by jaguars. The sun during this age was thought to be of only a
half light and feeble. This age lasted 676 years.
2. Naui Ehecatl (Four Wind). The second age and presided over by the benevolent
Quetzalcoatl. World was populated by humans that lived on pinon nuts and food
from a mesquite tree, and were then transformed into monkeys after being thrown
into the woods by high winds. The world was destroyed by hurricanes. The sun
itself was swept away by high winds. This age lasted 364 years.
3. Naui Quiahuitl (Four Rain). The third age and presided over by Tlaloc. World
was inhabited by humans who ate aquatic seeds. People were transformed into
dogs, turkeys, birds and butterflies and then perished in a fiery rain of
volcanic cinders falling from the sky. This age lasted 312 years.
4. Naui Atl (Four Water). Presided over by Chalchiuhtlicue. Humans living on
wild seeds and were transformed into fish. World destroyed by a great flood as
the sky collapsed. This age lasted 676 years.
5. Fifth and last age Naui Ollin (Four Movement). Presided over by Tonatiuh.
Cortes found these people, the Aztec, living on Corn and fully believing they
were eventually to be devoured by Tzitzimime, or celestial monsters. The world
would then be destroyed by great earthquakes nevermore to be resurrected. The
end will swallow all things and the stars would tumble down from the night sky.
This end is said to occur when the earth becomes tired. The first people
created in this final world were thought to be the Toltecs and their wars were
seen as a service to the gods(*17 ). The fifth and final sun was to be stolen by
Tezcatlipoca and all will go dark, forever(*18 ).
THE HEAVENS OF THE AZTECS(*19 )
There is a great deal of written material about the concept of Heaven and
several discrepancies between authors. Sahagun, Duran, and Alcaron each seem to
give a slightly different account even as to the correct number of levels
associated with heaven. Listed here is a collection of notes I have taken.
It is important to remember that the Mexica had no notion of eternity as we
today may have. Their concept of Heaven or Hell must have been as a temporary
storage place for the soul. Playing with humans, even after death by the the all
powerful deities. Men were truly toys of the gods.
1- realm of the moon(*20 ). Presided over by Xiuhteuctli, "Turquoise Lord".
2- realm of the stars. In this level there were women who had no flesh, just
bones, and were called Tetzuahcihua, or Tzitzimine. These women were to devour
the people during the destruction of the fifth sun, or end of the world.
According to Alcaron, notes p. 238, this level was presided over by Tlalteuctli,
meaning "Lord of the Land". Duran also makes reference to this deity and the
second level of heaven. There is some debate as to the gender of this deity and
several spelling are common. Spelling may have been TLAHUIZCALPANTECUHTLI,
Meaning "The Dawn Lord".
3- realm of the sun
4- realm of the planet Venus or birds
5- realm of comets and fire serpents
6- realm of winds and the color black
7- realm of the color blue and dust. Presided over by Huitliopoctli.
8- realm of storms. Presided over by Tlaloc.
9- realm of the White god
10- realm of the Yellow god. Presided over by Tezcatlipoca.
11- realm of the red god
12- Omeyocan, the Place of Duality, where the primordial creators lived, the
lord and lady of duality. According to Alcaron's book(*21 ), this level of Heaven,
or "Topan", as he refers to the concept was presided over by a deity
referred to
as Tlahuizcalpan Teuctli, meaning, "Lord at the Dawn". This may have been a
representation of Quetzalcoatl.
NOTE: Alcaron makes reference (* 22) to a deity called Tonacacihuatl, Meaning
"Sustenance Woman", as presiding over the thirteenth level of Heaven, or Topan
as he refers to the concept. The entry further makes reference to Tonacacihuatl
being another name for Xochiquetzal, or "Flower Princess".
THE NINE LAYERS OF HELL (*23 )
The journey of the dead was seen as a trial and consisted of a series of tests.
Often a red dog was killed and buried with the dead to help the traveler on his
journey into the land of the dead. The Mexica had no concept of hell and the
early Spanish priests would notice blank stares from the Indians when they
preached that they would go to "Mictlan" if they did not accept the teachings of
the Catholic faith. The priests should have used the term Ichantlacatecoloty,
"Home of the Owl Man", meaning the home of Mictlantecutli, it would have gotten
a better response.
Level 1- the surface of the earth
Levels 2-8 hazardous places that served as a challenge to the soul
Level 9- Mictlan(*24 ), or Place of the Dead, (the soul rested here for eternity)
ASSUMING HIGH POLITICAL OFFICE
Political office among the Mexica was taken quite seriously as indicated in the
translation of the text, verso 70, of the Magliabechaino Codex in Boone's book,
p. 211-212. In this translation she relates that a selected, or elected high
official would be stripped naked in front of council leaders who would lecture
the individual about his expected behavior. He was then placed in front of the
fire god, Xiuhtecutli where a sacrifice of incense was made and the man given a
new name. This new official was then made to sleep nude outside in the weather.
He was eventually given a ritual cloak and he fasted for four days on bread and
water eating only at night. This ritual is further illustrated in a color
painting on plate 71 of the Codex Magliabechiano.(* 25)
_________________________
8.
The Tonalpouhqui, "He Who Reads the Day Signs", was an important member of the
Mexica society. It was he with his predecessors in the Valley of Mexico who
created the Tonalamatl, "The Book of Destinies". The Tonalamatl was considered
quite ancient pre dating Quetzalcoatl.
9.
Sahagun gives credit to a woman named OXOMOCO and a man called ALPACTONAL or
CIPACTONAL as having come up with this Astrology system. Sahagun further refers
to this system as a form of Necromancy rather that Astrology. This belief system
was in full force at the time of Cortes, when it started to take hold I have not
discovered. Alcaron's book gives credit to the creation of this system to a man
named Ohxococo, meaning "Two Pine Torches Smeared with Turpentine Ointment".
Alcaron further mentions Cipactonal.
10.
This section derives heavily from the accounts of Sahagun and his spellings are
used here. Brief accounts are listed . For full verbose listings consult his
chapters on Astrology, see bibliography section.
11.
Cipactli, (swordfish), is the first day sign or house of this group. The second
day was Acatl, meaning cane, the third was Calli, meaning house, the fourth was
Cuetzpalin, meaning lizard, the fifth Coatl meaning snake, the sixth Miquiztli,
meaning death, the seventh Mazatl, meaning deer, the eighth Tochtli, meaning
rabbit, the ninth Atl, meaning water, the tenth Uzomatli, meaning female monkey,
the eleventh Itzcuintli, meaning dog, the twelfth Malinali, meaning twisting,
and the thirteenth Acatl, meaning cane (same sign as the second day). All of the
day signs had thirteen days or houses, like the ones described here. For
particular day signs of all the remaining day groups consult Sahagun's chapters
on Aztec Astrology.
12.
Disobedient behavior was not tolerated in Mexica society. The Codex Mendoza
relates the following punishments routinely handed out to un-ruly children:
Pinching of arms, pricking the skin with maguey spines, spanking, holding over a
fire of roasting peppers, and bound up and left in the cold or on wet muddy
ground. Presumably the otherwise bureaucratic Mexica had not yet developed a
Child Services division.
13.
The Mexica believed that fate was a predisposition for individuals and not men
as a group. Your tonalli predetermined your destiny. Tezcatlipoca was known to
meddle in the fate of an individual. Of interest the Mexica had special
ceremonies for the disposal of hair cut during what we may refer to as a
"haircut". The head was considered the focus of individual power, your tonalli,
and of your vulnerability. Your spirit was called "teyolia", and was contained in
your heart, your ihiyotl was considered your breath and was contained in your
liver.
14.
During the day sign one death, for Tezcatlipoca, the wooden collar of slaves was
removed and the slave bathed and treated like royalty and were treated like "ixiptlas",
or an image of Texcatlipoca. It was not allowed to strike a slave or otherwise
mistreat him as you could expect to become covered with open sores. Clendennen
p. 352, makes reference to only slaves who were flayed or adorned and given the
name of a deity were actually called "xiptlas".
15.
The significance of directions comes from the shooting of four arrows by Xolotl.
The Mexica universe consisted of five directions, the center where Xolotl stood
on a mountaintop. Xolotl then burned a ring of dried grass and scattered the
ashes to the four directions.
16.
The Aztec had no notion of eternity.
17.
The earth was thought of as a personification of chaos or unstructured matter
called Cipactli, a monstrous alligator, or shark who lived in the ocean.
Cipactli was bisexual and quite alone. Often considered a type of dragon
considered female and known as Tlalteuctli, "Earth Lady". Often Tlalteuctli was
considered as a giant toad with many mouths each dripping blood. Legend has it
that in the beginning Quetzalcoatl and Texcatlipoca assumed the shape of snakes
and squeezed Cipactli into two parts. The top part they made into the sky and
the lower part became the earth. There are other similar legends such as
entering Cipactli by the mouth and navel, but the essence of the story is the
same. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca then placed great trees at the corners of
the earth to hold up the sky. From the skin of Cipactli flowers and grasses were
formed, from her eyes, springs, from her mouth, rivers, from her nose, valleys,
and from her shoulders, the great mountains of Mexico. There are many creation
myths, this is but one. Other myths concern creation by blood sacrifice and
creation by theistic design or a divine mind.
18.
The Mexica religion reflected a mood of darkness and this mood carried over into
the day to day life. Even the god of fire and light lives in blackness in the
underworld. Tezcatlipoca was the "Prince of Darkness"
19.
A competing tradition of only nine heavens was practiced in the communities of
Chalco and Tlascala. Maya ruins at Chichen Itza also has references to a nine
level heaven concept as evidenced by recent findings in the interior of the
Castillo, or temple of Quetzalcoatl. According to Alcaron's book a general term
for Heaven was Topan.
20.
The moon was thought to be a cowardly symbol to the Mexica, probably due the
creation myth surrounding the moon. The moon was thought of in several ways. One
as Lady Golden Bells, Coyolxauhqui, sister of Huitzilopochtli. Also thought of
as Tlazolteotl, Eater of Filth.
21.
Notes p. 236
22.
Notes P. 240
23.
For an in-depth account of burial rites and rituals associated with the Aztec
concept of hell, consult Sahagun's writings.
24.
Mictlan was called "Land of the Unfleshed", "The Place of Our Common Sleep",
"Our Universal Home, Where There is no Way Out", "Land of the Dumb", "The
Extensive Land". Sahagun referes to Mictlan as a dark place of ill fortune,
without end, a fearful place. A cave in the mountain was the entry into the
underworld. Upon entering you came to a river where a red dog would carry across
your soul and would act as a guide through the various levels of Mictlan. Dogs
were killed and buried with the Mexica for this reason. Many dangers awaited
the soul including deserts, high mountains, dragons, hurricane force winds. The
journey took four years to reach the Lord of the Dead. The soul would be
destroyed at the end of the journey. For this reason there was no ancestor
worship among the Mexica as a soul would not be believed to exist after the
four years. Grave sites were unmarked in Mexico. The underworld had many layers
including a force just below the ground that pushed plants upwards to flower.
25.
There are very few practices of the Mexica that I would like to see in common
use toady, this is one of them.
The name Mictlan may have meant "Deadmans Land", or "Beside the Deadman". For
additional reading on the Nahuatl breakdown of this and other Nahuatl words and
phrases see Alcaron's book, appendix B.
This section is a problem in that almost every book researched will put a
different spelling or emphasis on certain words. One of the problems is that the
early documentation of the native language of the Aztec, Nahuatl, was first
translated into Spanish, then Latin, then to English and due to a lack of
serious study during the 16 th century the spellings, meanings and thought have
been corrupted.
AZTEC SACRIFICE - The Children of Templo Mayor
The material presented here is actual archaeological evidence of the
sacrificial rites of the Mexica tribe. For years there has been academic
debate over the facts of this issue. I am staying away from early sources
and presenting actual fact here.
Within these seven caves lived the Four Hundred Mimixcoa, a group of giants born
from the earth goddess. Their father was the sun and taught them to use weapons.
The Mimixcoa defied their parents and learned to make wine from cactus. The
parents bore five more children and gave them better training and weapons and
the new children conquered the Four Hundred and fed the blood to the sun and the
earth. The hearts were torn from the Four Hundred and this is the first recorded
event of sacrifice. The seven caves were given to the head of the five children,
Mixcoatl, singular form of Mimixcoa. The name Mimixcoa translates to "Cloud
Serpents". These five were the beginning of the Chichimec deities.
The article below relates to medical examination of the recently discovered remains of sacrificed children
in the Templo Mayor excavation project. I have asked someone I respect a great deal to translate
a portion as well as pen a few paragraphs about the actual going ons inside the Templo Mayor
excavation project. I want to thank Elizabeth for her help. ...TF
Interdisciplinary Studies: (part four) trans.
From the perspective of Physical Anthropology (the branch of
Anthropology that dedicates itself to the study of the biological being
in its socio-cultural context) the Osteological analysis contributed to
a series of data and coincided with the contents of sources .
(Osteololgy: the study of the structure and function of the skeleton and
bony structures)
In the three discoveries, the children's ages fluctuated between 2 and
8 years old. Although, in Tlateloco, there were also sacrifices of new
born children, which collaborates with Sahagun in the sense that he
wrote the children sacrificed themselves..."niños de teta" nursing
children. One source speaks of the sex of the children, but it is not
possible to determine for certain, since the characteristics of
sexuality are not present in the bones until after puberty. Some
investigators consider that such an estimation would be merely
guesswork.
In our case, unfortunately, the techniques employed to test the
characteristics are not absolutely reliable, and there then exists a
reasonable margin of error in the matter. Anyway, the results point out
that the majority of the children were masculine, which coincides with
the written testimonies to a certain point, in the the sense that the
cause of death was beheading.
Yet, several aspects of the sources do not mention this, the study of
Physical Anthropology has shown that most of the individuals discovered
displayed indications of having undergone some type of suffering. Marks
of certain pathologies observed in the bones indicate that the
individuals were ill. In this case, for example, more than 50% of the
subjects presented/displayed anomalies in the skull and in the roof of
the orbits; a condition caused by anemia, a deficiency of iron. 60% of
all the children displayed dental pathologies, decay and problems with
abscesses. Also, pathologies indicated the presence of infection in the
various bones of the skeletons, and cerebral tumors. Moreover, it was
observed that 63% of the children exhibited 'hipoplasias' striations in
the enamel, evidence that the children were severely undernourished.
PUBLISHED TEXT IN ORIGNAL SPANISH
"arqueología mexicana" vol. VI - num.31 Mayo - Junio 1998
... a publication of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e
Historia...INAH address: Administración Postal Núm. 77 C.P. 11200.
Mexico, D.F.
authors :
* Juan Alberto Román Berrelleza, Antropólogo físico, Investigador del
Museo del Templo Mayor, INAH
* Alfonso Torre Blanco, Doctor en bioquîmica. Investigador del
Departmento de Biología de la Facultad de Ciencias de la UNAM.
"Los sacrificios de niños en el Templo Mayor:
un enfoque interdisplinario"
"Estudios Interdisciplinarios"
Desde la perspectiva de la antropología física -rama de la antropología
que se dedica el estudio del ser biológico en su contexto
sociocultural-, el análisis osteológico aportó una serie de datos
coinciden con los contenidos en las fuentes. En los tres
descubrimientos se trató de niños cuyas edades fluctuaban entre los dos
y los ochos años de edad, si bien en Tlateloco también fueron
sacrificados niños recién nacidos, con lo que se corroboraría lo dicho
por Sahagún en el sentido de que se sacrificaban "niños de teta". En lo
que se refiere al sexo de los niños, no fue posible determarlo con
certeza, lo cual se debe a que los caracteres sexuales secundarios no se
manifiestan en los huesos sino hasta después de la pubertad. Algunos
investigadores consideran que tal estimación en poco menos que una
adivinanza.
En nuestro caso, desafortunadamente, las técnicas empleadas sólo tienen
el carácter de prueba u no son del todo confiables, por lo que persiste
un razonable margen de error al respecto. De cualquier forma, los
resultados apuntan a que se trara mayoritariamente de niños de sexo
masuclino, lo que hasta cierto punto coindiciríria parcialmente con las
fuentes. De la misma manera, los testimonios escritos concuerdan con
los análisis efectuados,en el sentido de que la causa de la muerte de
esos individuos fue el degollamiento.
Con todo, existen varios aspectos que las fuentes no mencionan. El
estudio antropofísico mostró que la mayoría de los individuos
descubiertos presentaba indicios de haber sufrido una serie de
padecimientos; esto es, las huellas de ciertas patologías observadas en
los huesos señalan que se trataba de individuos enfermos. Así, por
ejemplo, más del 50% de los sujetos presentaba anomalías en el cráneo y
en el techo de las órbitas, condución derivada de la anemia por
defiencia de hierro. El 60% de los niños presentaba patologías
dentales, entre las que destacan las caries y los problemas
parodontales, como son los abscesos. Asimismo, otra patologías
estuvieron representadas por procesos infecciosos en diversos huesos de
los esqueletos y por tumores cerebrales, entre las más importantes.
Además, en un 63% de los niños se observaron líneas de hipoplasias del
esmalte en las coronas de los dientes, lo cual indica que se trataba de
individuos afectados por la desnutrición
Para leer más (for more reading)
GONZALES TORRES, Yolotl, "El Sacrificio Humano entre los mexicas",
FCE/INAH, Mexcio 1988
ROMAN BERRELLEAZA, Juan Alberto, "Sacrifioio de niños en el Templo
Mayor", GV Editores/INAH Mexico 1990
LETTER
I want to thank [email protected] for taking the time to send in the
following letter for posting. The content of the letter is by the author. This letter
contains several interesting theories and references, most of which I am un-familiar with.
Mr. Frederiksen,
1) The children sacrificed at the Templo Mayor, according to your
description, were decapitated, but according to the reports by the
anthropologists, their death was most certainly caused by several wounds on
the neck that caused them to bleed white. Also, there were put forward some
other theories regarding the method used to sacrifice those children,
including dismembering them, either while still alive or when they were
already dead, or extracting their hearts.
I believe that some of the children had their throats slit as the
anthropologists say, but at least 11 of them could have had their hearts
removed, either as the method used to execute them or as a complement of
the slashing of their throats. I base this assumption on the presence of 11
stone jars with the effigy of Tlaloc, that had a very shallow opening on
their top. I believe that the hearts of those children were placed on those
jars as part of the offerings.
Another piece of evidence that suggests this to me is that in some of the
skulls and mandibles (11 of them) they found a large bead of green stone
placed inside the mouth. As I have read, this was usually done with the
victims of heart sacrifice on many prehispanic cultures.
2) When excavating the offering, the anthropologists at first believed they
had found an ossary, but at the bottom of the grave they found two rather
complete skeletons, seated and with their arms and legs placed very closely
to their bodies. According to the reading, those children were complete
except for the absence of the hands and/or feet. Could it be possible that
in some part of the ritual the victims had their hands and feet cut? In
Cholula (Puebla) the archaeologists found several offerings on which the
charred bones of hands and feet were placed on decorated dishes. Could this
had been the case with at least this two children?
3) There was also found a femur that had been cut just over the knee; that
is, at least one of the children had at least one of his legs amputated
above the knee with a stone knife that had to cut through the flesh,
serrate and fracture the bone, and destroy the ligaments and tendons.
Though there are no written records of this kind of treatment of the
victims of sacrifice, specially children, it might be interesting to
examine that femur under a microscope to see if there are blood intrusions
on the bone tissue, because that could indicate the presence of blood
pressure at the moment of the amputation and by extension, show if the boy
had his leg amputated while still alive or once he had died. The same could
be applied to the left ribs, breastbones and vertebrae, because apart of
finding possible cut marks on the bones they could find evidence showing
that the children were mutilated while still alive or not.
4) How could the children had been dressed for their execution? According
to the report, there were stone beads and remnants of thread, so the
archaeologists deduce that the children wore bracelets and necklaces. The
question is: they found organic matter preserved along with the bones, that
is, a lot of cabbage, some wooden pieces and the thread used to form the
jewelry. Would not it be expected to have found also traces of cloth? Does
it indicate that, save for the necklaces and bracelets, the children were
nude when they died? And could the bracelets have been placed on the bodies
just after their death? I assume this because some of the bones were found
painted on blue, indicating that the bodies or corporal segments were
placed in the tomb and then covered with mineral pigment, and that the
beads were found dispersed at the bottom of the grave, though some formed
groups that clearly indicated the figure of the jewels.
Another question:
What did the Aztecs do with the corpses once the children had been
executed? There are several representations on stone drawings nearby in
Mexico that depict a pole from which hang what seem to be two sacrificed
children. Their bodies are hanged upside down, tied by the feet to some
sort of rotating device. I found that description on another archaeological
paper; I will try to locate it and send it to you also.
I hope you can contribute with some more ideas.
Regards!!!
REFERENCES
Sacrificio de Ninos en el Templo Mayor
Juan Antonio Roman Berrelleza
Coleccion Divulgacion
Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia
Mexico, 1991
This was the author's degree dissertation on the theme, and was later
published as a book.
El Sacrificio Humano entre los Mexicas
Yolotl Gonzalez Torres
México, 1985
RELIGION EN MESOAMERICA
XXII MESA REDONDA
SOCIEDAD MEXICANA DE ANTROPOLOGIA
MEXICO, 1972
These are the memories of the XXII round table disertation regarding
prehispanic religion. You might find interesting the following articles,
related in some measure to ritual child sacrifice by the aztecs.
Chapter 11: Pinturas rupestres aztecas en el Popocatepetl
Virve Piho y Carlos Hernandez
Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia
pages 85 - 90
This article describes a set of mural paintings found on the Popocatepetl
mountain some years ago, and it suggest some kind of ritual treatment for
the corpses of sacrificed children.
Chapter 21: Santuarios y peregrinaciones en el mexico prehispanico
Carlos Martinez Marin
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico
pages 161 - 178
This essay describes the diverse sacred places on which the aztecs used to
offer sacrifices. It describes among other things the sites on the lake,
mountains and caves were children used to be sacrificed.
end of letter
AZTEC CREATION, HEAVEN, & HELL
AZTEC CREATION MYTHOLOGY
According to one legend the creation of the universe was the work
of two primordial deities, Ometecutli, Lord of Duality, and
Omecihuatl, Lady of Duality. As creators of initial life they
produced four sons, Tezcatlipoca, Xipe Totec, Quetzalcoatl, and Huitzilopochtli. Each of these gods was associated with a
different direction(*8), color, tree, bird, and other natural
events.
Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli were credited with the creation
of all human and animal life as well as natural vegetation. Some
of the other gods worshiped by the Mexica were also created by
these two deities.
THE FIVE AGES OF THE EARTH OR (SUNS)
The Aztec believed that the world was destined to be created and
destroyed a total of five times. The Aztecs Cortes found
believed that they were living in the fifth and final creation
period(*9).
____________________
8 The significance of directions comes from the shooting of four
arrows by Xolotl. The Mexica universe consisted of five
directions, the center where Xolotl stood on a mountaintop.
Xolotl then burned a ring of dried grass and scattered the ashes
to the four directions.
9 The Aztec had no notion of eternity.
1. Naui Ocelotl (Four Jaguar). The first age and was presided
over by Tezcatlipoca. This age consisted of giant beings that
lived on acorns and were eventually eaten by jaguars. The sun
during this age was thought to be of only a half light and
feeble. This age lasted 676 years.
2. Naui Ehecatl (Four Wind). The second age and presided over
by the benevolent Quetzalcoatl. World was populated by humans
that lived on pinon nuts and food from a mesquite tree, and were
then transformed into monkeys after being thrown into the woods
by high winds. The world was destroyed by hurricanes. The sun
itself was swept away by high winds. This age lasted 364 years.
3. Naui Quiahuitl (Four Rain). The third age and presided over
by Tlaloc. World was inhabited by humans who ate aquatic seeds.
People were transformed into dogs, turkeys, birds and butterflies
and then perished in a fiery rain of volcanic cinders falling
from the sky. This age lasted 312 years.
4. Naui Atl (Four Water). Presided over by Chalchiuhtlicue.
Humans living on wild seeds and were transformed into fish.
World destroyed by a great flood as the sky collapsed. This age
lasted 676 years.
5. Fifth and last age Naui Ollin (Four Movement). Presided over
by Tonatiuh. Cortes found these people, the Aztec, living on Corn
and fully believing they were eventually to be devoured by
Tzitzimime, or celestial monsters. The world would then be
destroyed by great earthquakes nevermore to be resurrected. The
end will swallow all things and the stars would tumble down from
the night sky. This end is said to occur when the earth becomes
tired. The first people created in this final world were thought
to be the Toltecs and their wars were seen as a service to the
gods(*10). The fifth and final sun was to be stolen by
Tezcatlipoca and all will go dark, forever(*11).
________________________
10 The earth was thought of as a personification of chaos or
unstructured matter called Cipactli, a monstrous alligator, or
shark who lived in the ocean. Cipactli was bisexual and quite
alone. Often considered a type of dragon considered female and
known as Tlalteuctli, "Earth Lady". Often Tlalteuctli was
considered as a giant toad with many mouths each dripping blood.
Legend has it that in the beginning Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca
assumed the shape of snakes and squeezed Cipactli into two parts.
The top part they made into the sky and the lower part became the
earth. There are other similar legends such as entering Cipactli
by the mouth and navel, but the essence of the story is the same.
Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca then placed great trees at the
corners of the earth to hold up the sky. From the skin of
Cipactli flowers and grasses were formed, from her eyes, springs,
from her mouth, rivers, from her nose, valleys, and from her
shoulders, the great mountains of Mexico. There are many
creation myths, this is but one. Other myths concern creation by
blood sacrifice and creation by theistic design or a divine mind.
THE HEAVENS OF THE AZTECS
There(*12) is a great deal of written material about the concept of
Heaven and several discrepancies between authors. Sahagun,
Duran, and Alcaron each seem to give a slightly different account
even as to the correct number of levels associated with heaven.
Listed here is a collection of notes I have taken.
It is important to remember that the Mexica had no notion of
eternity as we today may have. Their concept of Heaven or Hell
must have been as a temporary storage place for the soul.
Manipulation even after death by the all powerful deities.
Men were truly toys of the gods.
1- realm of the moon(*13). Presided over by Xiuhteuctli,
"Turquoise Lord".
____________________
11 The Mexica religion reflected a mood of darkness and this mood
carried over into the day to day life. Even the god of fire and
light lives in blackness in the underworld. Tezcatlipoca was the
"Prince of Darkness"
12 A competing tradition of only nine heavens was practiced in
the communities of Chalco and Tlaxcala. Maya ruins at Chichen
Itza also has references to a nine level heaven concept as
evidenced by recent findings in the interior of the Castillo, or
temple of Quetzalcoatl. According to Alcaron's book a general
term for Heaven was Topan.
2- realm of the stars. In this level there were women who had no
flesh, just bones, and were called Tetzuahcihua, or Tzitzimine.
These women were to devour the people during the destruction of
the fifth sun, or end of the world. According to Alcaron, notes
p. 238, this level was presided over by Tlalteuctli, meaning
"Lord of the Land". Duran also makes reference to this deity and
the second level of heaven. There is some debate as to the
gender of this deity and several spelling are common. Spelling
may have been TLAHUIZCALPANTECUHTLI, Meaning "The Dawn Lord".
3- realm of the sun
4- realm of the planet Venus or birds
5- realm of comets and fire serpents
6- realm of winds and the color black
7- realm of the color blue and dust. Presided over by
Huitzilopochtli.
8- realm of storms. Presided over by Tlaloc.
9- realm of the White god
10- realm of the Yellow god. Presided over by Tezcatlipoca.
11- realm of the red god
12- Omeyocan, the Place of Duality, where the primordial creators
lived, the lord and lady of duality. According to Alcaron's
book(*14), this level of Heaven, or "Topan", as he refers to the
concept was presided over by a deity refereed to as Tlahuizcalpan
Teuctli, meaning, "Lord at the Dawn". This may have been a
representation of Quetzalcoatl.
NOTE: Alcaron makes reference (*15) to a deity called
Tonacacihuatl, Meaning "Sustenance Woman", as presiding over the
thirteenth level of Heaven, or Topan as he refers to the concept.
The entry further makes reference to Tonacacihuatl being another
name for Xochiquetzal, or "Flower Princess".
THE NINE LAYERS OF HELL
The (*16)journey of the dead was seen as a trial and consisted of a
series of tests. Often a red dog was killed and buried with the
dead to help the traveler on his journey into the land of the
dead. The Mexica had no concept of hell and the early Spanish
priests would notice blank stares from the Indians when they
preached that they would go to "Mictlan" if they did not accept
the teachings of the Catholic faith. The priests should have
used the term Ichantlacatecoloty, "Home of the Owl Man", meaning
the home of Mictlantecutli, it would have gotten a better
response.
Level 1- the surface of the earth
Levels 2-8 hazardous places that served as a challenge to the
soul
Level 9- Mictlan(*17), or Place of the Dead, (the soul rested
here for eternity)
____________________
13 The moon was thought to be a cowardly symbol to the Mexica,
probably due the creation myth surrounding the moon. The moon
was thought of in several ways. One as Lady Golden Bells,
Coyolxauhqui, sister of Huitzilopochtli. Also thought of as
Tlazolteotl, "Eater of Filth".
14 Notes p. 236
15 Notes P. 240
16 For an in-depth account of burial rites and rituals associated
with the Aztec concept of hell, consult Sahagun's writings. There are also web site
links to this interesting aspect located in the Aztec Links section.
17 Mictlan was called "Land of the Unfleshed", "The Place of Our
Common Sleep", "Our Universal Home, Where There is no Way Out",
"Land of the Dumb", "The Extensive Land". Sahagun reefers to
Mictlan as a dark place of ill fortune, without end, a fearful
place. A cave in the mountain was the entry into the underworld.
Upon entering you came to a river where a red dog would carry
across your soul and would act as a guide through the various
levels of Mictlan. Dogs were killed and buried with the Mexica
for this reason. Many dangers awaited the soul including
deserts, high mountains, dragons, hurricane force winds. The
journey took four years to reach the Lord of the Dead. The soul
would be destroyed at the end of the journey. For this reason
there was no ancestor worship among the Mexica as a soul would
not be believed to exist after the four years. Grave sites were
unmarked in Mexico. The underworld had many layers including a
force just below the ground that pushed plants upwards to flower.
The name Mictlan may have meant "Deadmans Land", or "Beside the
Deadman". For additional reading on the Nahuatl breakdown of
this and other Nahuatl words and phrases see Alcaron's book,
appendix B.
AZTEC RELIGION - Omens and Dreams
It is hard to understand the Mexica religion without a quick look at the devotion they had
toward what we might consider Omens. Also included here is a brief example of how the Mexica viewed
their dreams. For a student interested in further research into this area, I suggest
reading Diego Duran as well as the Sahagun sources
reference listed in this section Bibliography.
The first omen was that if someone heard a wild animal cry out, it was
said already he will die in war or he will sell himself.
The second omen was that if the night heron (or laughing falcon)
laughs, it was said already he will die in war.
3rd, that of the night axe, as if someone splits something, cuts wood.
So it was said perhaps something will befall him.
4th, the owl cries out on the edge of the roof terrace: it was said
perhaps he will die in war or his son will die.
5rh, The owl strikes the front of the house; it was said that already
the owner of the house will die.
6th, If the barn owl entered anyone's house, it was said that already
(the owner) would commit adultery.
The 7th omen was that of the weasel. It was said that if it crosses
someone's path, he can not go where he wishes to go; he will be killed;
into others' hands he will go falling (i.e. be captured) on the road.
The 8th omen was that of the rabbit. If if it entered anyone's house,
it was said that his house will be destroyed, or (the owner) will flee.
(the 9th -if there was one and not just a mistake in numbering - is
missing from the original manuscript)
The 10th omen was that of the chafer which one met on the road or saw
(in) the house. It was said that perhaps somewhere one will be chidden
before others; he will be shamed.
11th. The skunk. If it entered someone's house or bears its young
there, it was held that already the house-owner will die.
The 12th omen was that of the ants. If they were swarming in someone's
house, it was said that the house-owner already dies.
The 13th omen was that of the giant. If someone saw him, it was held
that already he will die in war.
The 14th omen was that of the "bundle of ashes." If someone saw it, it
was said that he already will die.
The 15th omen was that of the one completely pressed down. If someone
saw it, it was said that already he will die.
The 16th omen was that of the coyote. If somebody met it or crossed
its path, it was said that already he will die.
And it was an omen for the city when it came to pass that a cliff
crumbled or a mountain crumbled. And still others there are which we do
not know [i.e.(probably), do not understand].
The when fierce beasts roar it was also an omen for the city. But
still others there are which we do not know [or understand].
Further Omens
He who dreamed that the devil calls him, made a vow to him.
He who dreamed that his house burns, it was said, will already die, and
if he dreamed that he is swept away by the water, he already will die.
He who dreamed, who saw in a dream that there is singing in his house,
it was said, will already die.
And he who dreamed that the mountain crumbles on him, it was also said,
will already die.
He who dreamed that a tree breaks over him, it was said, will already
die.
He who dreamed that he has a house built for him, it was also said,
will already die.
He who dreamed that the sun was eclipsed, it was also said, will go
blind or will sell himself.
He who dreamed that a fierce beast eats him, it was held, that he will
already die.
He who dreamed that he flies, it was said, already he will die in war.
But of still other dreams we do not know. There are many.
The soothsayer declared the dreams to one as he looked in the book of
days, and he set forth that there be paying of one's debt, and he
established the payment debt, and the payment of debt was in paper,
copal, rubber.
Concerning the grains of dried maize: in many things still by them are
the women affected. First, when they cook it or set it on the ashes,
here is their folly: when already they will place it in the ash-olla,
still at first they warm it with their breath. It is said thus it will
not be afraid; thus it will not fear the heat. It is said thus they
habituate it to the heat.
Second, thus do they delude themselves. If they saw or went to come
upon grains of dried maize lying scattered on the ground, then they at
once pick them up. They say: "Unfortunate is our sustenance. It lies
weeping at intervals. For if we shall not pick it up, it will complain
about us before our lord. For it will say to him: 'O our lord, this
commoner did not pick me up when on the ground I lay all spread out.
Punish him.' Or perhaps we shall starve."
And also when the woman is pregnant, when the sun is eclipsed, or the
moon, she could not look at it. It is said that if she will look at it,
harelipped her child will be. And thus did the pregnant woman mitigate
it: she placed obsidian in her bosom. It is said that with it the
small child will not be harelipped.
This metate people here took as an omen. When someone there is
extended grinding, when it breaks: thus it appeared, it was said, that
already will die the one who was grinding, or the house owner, or his
children, or some of their house folk will die.
..Omens, dreams (Tetzauitl, temictli) From "Primeros memoriales", by Sahagún
SHORT PASSAGE IN NAHUATL......
"Tetzauitl, temictl
from: "Primeros memoriales", Sahagún
Inic centlamantli tetzauitl yehoatl yn aca quicaquia tequani
choca,
mitoaya ye yaumiquiz, anoco monamacaz.
Inic vntlamantli tetzauitl yehoatl yn vactli vevetzca mitoaya ye
yaumiquiz.
Inic etlmantli yehoatl in yiovalteputzli iuhquin aca tlaxeloa
quauhtequi iuh mitoaya aco ytla ipã muchivaz.
Inic nauhtlamantli in teculotl choca y tlapãtenco mitoaya aco
yaumiquiz anoco ipiltzin miquiz.
Inic macuillamantli yehoatl in chicuatli in calixquatl
quivitequi, mitoaya ye miquiz in chane.
Inin chicuacentlamantli yehoatl in chichtli in aca ichan
calaquia mitoaya ye tetlaximaz.
Inic chicontlamantli yehoatl in cozatli cozamatl mitoaya in aca
quiyacaviltequi amo vel yaz in campa yaznequi, mictiloz temac vetzitiuh
otlica.
Inic chicuetlamantli tetzavitl catca yehoatl in tochtli in aca
ichan calaquia, mitoaya ye tlalpoliviz in ichan, anozo ye choloz.
(No. 9 is missing in the M.S.)
Inic matlactlamantli tetzavitl catca yehoatl in pinaviztli in otlica
oquinamic, anozo calli oquittac, mitoaya azo cana teixpan ayoz,
pinauhtiloz.
Inic matlactlamantli once yehoatl in epatl in aca ichan callaquia,
anozo uncan mopilhoatia, motenehuaya ye miquiz in chane.
Inic matlactlamantli omome tetzavitl catca yehoatl in azcame in aca
ichan molonia, mitoaya ye miqui in chane.
Inic matlactli tlamantli umey tetzavitl catca yehoatl in tlacaveyac in
aca quittaya, iuh motenevaya ye yaumiquiz.
Inic matlactli unnavi tetzavitl catca yehoatl in tlacanexquimilli, in
aca quittaya, mitoaya ye miquiz.
Inic caxtollamantli tetzavitl catca yehoatl in centlapachto in aca
quittaya, mitoaya ye miquiz.
Inic caxtollamantli oce tetzavitl catca yehoatl in coyotl in aca
quinamiquia, anozo quiyacaviltequia, mitoaya ye miquiz.
Auh in altepetl itetzauh catca inic mochivaya yehoatl in texcalli
xitinia, anozo tepetl xitinia: yoan oc cequi in amo vel ticmati.
Niman yeevatl in tequanime choca no itetzauh catca in altepetl.
Auh oc no cequi in amo ticmati.
Other Aztec related links:
Religion of the Modern Aztlan Movement
Religion of the Mexica & Bibliography
Major Deitites of the Mexica
Minor Deitites of the Mexica
Mexica Medicine
Aztec Life
Aztec Cannibalism: An Ecological Necessity?
The Aztec Account of the Spanish Conquest of Mexico
Commons 